Management Articles

Common Tasks Performed By Office Managers

2009-05-11T08:13:00.001-07:00

Are you interested in working as an office manager? If you are, you may be ready to start applying for jobs. Before doing so, it is important to know what being an office manager entails. This can be done by examining a few of the many common job responsibilities of office managers.

One of the most common tasks performed by office managers is that of management. Many office managers are responsible for overseeing and supervising other office personnel. Management is most commonly a responsibility of office managers that are employed by larger companies. Office managers are usually responsible for giving staff members projects to complete, answering questions concerning those projects, as well as making sure that all employees are able to meet their deadlines.

Word processing is another task that is regularly performed by office managers. Office managers are known for typing up and distributing important company documents and memos. These documents and memos may be for other employees, customers, or both. Office managers may also spend a good portion of their time searching the internet or using office management software to help find professional company templates for important forms and documents, such as company invoices, faxes, and so forth.

Another one of the many tasks performed by office managers involves answering incoming telephone calls. These telephone calls are most commonly answered and processed by office managers who are limited on the number of office employees they oversee. In larger companies, office managers would not likely be responsible for answering all incoming telephone calls, as there is usually a customer service department designed especially for doing so.

Training new employees is another job responsibility of many office managers. In fact, depending on the company in question, an office manager may have a large number of human resource responsibilities. These responsibilities may include accepting and sorting job applications and resumes, setting up and conducting job interviews, as well as making all new hire decisions. Office managers may also be responsible for terminating workers who do not meet or exceed company standards.

The above mentioned job responsibilities are just a few of the many responsibilities of office managers. If you are looking for a career in office management, it is advised that you first do a little bit of research. As outlined above, not all office managers have the same job responsibilities. These responsibilities often depend on the company in question, as well as its size. Since job responsibilities often play an important role in the skills or experience needed be an office manager, you will want to do as much research as possible.

One of the best ways to know if you are qualified for an office management job is to thoroughly examine the job listing. This job listing will not only outline any job or training requirements that the hiring company has, but they may also outline common job responsibilities. These responsibilities, tasks, and duties, can give you an idea as to whether or not the office management job in question is one that you are willing to accept.

As a reminder, not all office management jobs are the same. If you would like to work in office management, but are unsure if you possess the skills needed to do so, you may want invest in a number of office management training courses. For reasonable attendance fees, these courses can give you the training and experience that you need to succeed in the field of office management.

Common Office Management Mistakes

2009-05-11T08:12:00.001-07:00

If you are looking to find an office management job or if you were recently promoted to office manager, you may be feeling proud and excited, as you should be. With that in mind, it is also important to focus on the tasks at hand. Office management can be rewarding, but it can also be demanding. In this type of environment, it is easy to make mistakes. A few common office management mistakes, namely ones that you will want to avoid making, are outlined below for your convenience.

One of the biggest mistakes made in office management is making drastic changes or too many changes right away. This is most often seen with new hires or office managers that are new to a particular company. Although you will want to effectively run your office and do so in your own way, it is advised that you pace yourself. Gradual changes are often the best, for everyone involved. This will help to easily transition your workers. With that in mind, be sure to make all changes needed, but do so with the right approach.

Being everyone’s friend is another one of the many mistakes made by office managers, especially those that are new. Many individuals confuse workplace relationships with friendships or even romantic relationships. If your office management job requires the supervising of others, it is important to establish yourself as a supervisor. Yes, you will want to act and appear human, but is important that your approaches are professional in nature. When working as an office manager, your concerns should be focused on workplace issues, such as sexual harassment, not who is currently dating who inside or outside of the office.

Not taking responsibility for your actions is another mistake that you will not want to make, as an office manager. As stated before, office management is demanding. It is not uncommon for you to have your own tasks, as well as be responsible for overseeing others and their projects. This is often what leaves room for errors or excuses. As an office manager, it is advised that you do not abuse your power. If you make a mistake that is brought to light, it is advised that you own up to that mistake. In the fast paced career world, many office managers can find themselves doing or saying things that they otherwise wouldn’t do or say. That is why it is advised that you always try and keep one foot on the ground, as they say.

A lack of communication is another mistake regularly made by office managers. While this may seem like common sense, it is important to remember that your coworkers and supervisors are not mind readers. That is why it is important to openly discuss all work related issues. Should you delegate work to others, make sure that your directions are clear and to the point. Should anyone need assistance, be sure to give it to them and in a timely matter. If you are a supervisor, which is likely the case in a large office setting, be sure that your staff members feel comfortable approaching you for assistance.

The mistakes outlined above are just a few of the many common mistakes made by office managers. To avoid these common office management mistakes and others, it is advised that you use your best judgment at all times.

Common Office Management Jobs

2009-05-11T08:11:00.001-07:00

Are you searching for a new job or career? If you are, you may have heard of office management careers. Office management careers are ideal for many job seekers, but many are unsure as to exactly what jobs are out there. If you are one of those individuals, it is important to know that you have an unlimited number of options. Office management can take on a number of different formats.

When comes to examining the jobs that you can have, when searching for a career in office management, it is important to remember that there will be variances. The office management jobs that are you able to find will all vary, depending on a number of different factors. These factors include location and the number of hiring companies in the area. Despite the possibility of a variance, there are a number of common office management jobs that you are likely to come across in your search for a new job or career. A few of those jobs are outlined below.

Medical office management jobs are the most commonly advertised office management jobs. Those who work as office managers in medical offices often perform a wider range of tasks. These tasks can include overseeing office personnel, such as those who work in scheduling, medical billing, and so on. In addition to monitoring these individuals and their tasks, you may also have your own task list, which may include answering phone or sending out customer invoices. Due to fast paced nature of medicine and healthcare, office managers in medical offices are typically always on the go, with large to do lists.

Legal office management jobs are also commonly advertised jobs. As with medical management jobs, legal office management jobs typically involve the overseeing of a law firm. With that in mind, your duties will all depend on the size of the law firm in question. If you were employed by a small law firm, you may not necessarily have other office workers to oversee; therefore, your duties may focus solely on speaking with clients, arranging meetings, and payment processing. Large law firms, especially those in large cities, such as New York or Chicago, are actually know to employ multiple office managers.

Government office management jobs are another type of office management job regularly found advertised online or in newspapers. Government office management jobs are nice, but they can sometimes be difficult to acquire. Depending on the city, state, or county in which you live in, there may be certain rules and restrictions. For instance, it is common for city or county workers to have to live in the city or county that they are employed by. It is also common for government workers to take civil service exams, which they must pass. As far as job responsibilities go, many government office managers are required to oversee other office staff members, as well as perform their own duties, such as answering all incoming telephone calls.

The above mentioned office management jobs are just a few of the many that you may find, once you start your job search. With that in mind, it is important to remember that just about any company can hire an office manager. Any business that has an office, no matter how large or small it is, can benefit from the use of employing a professional office manager. That is why it is advised that you keep your eyes and ears open at all times, as you never really know when you may come across open office management positions.

Speaking of finding open office management jobs, there are a number of different approaches that you can take, aside from keeping your eyes and ears open at all times. The internet is a great way to find open office management jobs. Career search or job search websites enable you to search for jobs in a particular field, such as office management, and in a particular area, such as your hometown. You can also use career fairs and newspaper employment sections to help you find office management jobs.

Business Owners: Moneysaving Office Management Tips

2009-05-11T08:05:00.001-07:00

Not all businesses are able to see success and profits right away. This includes businesses such as law offices, medical offices, or even retail stores. If you are looking to improve or expand your business, but while on a budget, you may be unsure as to how you should proceed. The good news is that there are a number of moneysaving steps that you can take to effectively have your office managed, even while on a budget.

One of the many ways that you can go about achieving perfect office management, but without having to spend a lot of money, involves promoting from within. This is ideal if you are looking to hire an office manager or an office supervisor. There is a good chance that you already employ a number of office workers, such as secretaries. For a reasonable pay increase, you may be able to give one of your qualified workers additional tasks, such as the task of managing the office as a whole.

Outsourcing some of your office management duties is another moneysaving approach that you may want to examine. With that in mind, it is important to remember that office management encompasses a wide range of tasks. If you are a small business owner or active in the day-to-day operations of your business, your office manager may not necessarily need to oversee or manage other workers. If that is the case, outsourcing may be easy for you. You can hire an outsourcing company or an outsourced worker to handle all incoming telephone calls, process payments, make appointments or reservations, and so froth. This may be cheaper for you to do than hiring an in-house office manager, especially if he or she would have limited job duties.

Investing in office management software is another moneysaving way to effectively manage your office or your business as a whole. Yes, you will need to pay for office management software and the cost can be quite high. With that in mind, it is important to consider the purchase an investment. In fact, the buying of office management software is actually an investment that you can easily see a return on, as it can pay for itself if used properly. Office management software combines a number of business programs all into one. These programs can be web based or shared on a network. This allows you and other office employees to create and share project tasks lists, and do so much more. Office management is known for its ability to save time, speed up productivity, and improve performance levels.

Another option that you have involves hiring temporary workers. Temporary workers are nice, as you can use them as needed. If you are interested in employing temporary workers, it is important to make their work status known up front. Many job seekers would prefer permanent employment, but there are others out there who can benefit from temporary employment. When hiring temporary employees, you can use the assistance of temporary staffing firms, the internet, or local newspaper employment sections.

The above mentioned approaches are just a few of the moneysaving approaches that you can take to bring effective office management into your business, but without having to incur large debts doing so. Additional moneysaving office management techniques can be found with a little bit of research, as well as through trial and error.

An Office Management Software Buying Guide

2009-05-11T08:04:00.001-07:00

Running an office can be a difficult task for any office manager. If you are a business owner, you may want to consider using office management software to assist your office manager. If you are an office manager, you may want to suggest office management software to your supervisor.

As nice as it is to hear that office management software can simplify many office management procedures, you may be curious as to how it is done. For starters, it is important to realize that office management software is designed to simplify the process of office management. This often involves integrating a number of computer software programs and features all into one program.

Before examining some of the many features found on office management software, it is important to remember that there is a variance. With that in mind, many office management software programs have easy to use email programs, downloadable and printable customer invoice templates, as well as customer payment record programs, document templates, editable to do lists, and much more. This easy access to important information and documents will allow your office manager and possibly other staff members to prioritize and improve their productivity.

If you like what office management software can do for you, you may want to start shopping right away. Before doing so, it is important to remember that office management software comes in a number of different formats. If this is your first time purchasing office management software, there are a number of points that you will first want to examine. These points, a few of which are outlined below, can help to ensure that the office management software program purchased is the software that is best for you, your business, and your office manager.

As previously stated, office management software comes in a number of different formats and different versions. It is important to choose a software program that you and your company can benefit from. That is why it is important to examine all software features. For instance, if you run a medical office, invoice templates and a payment tracking program may be needed software features. If your office is large is size, it may be best to choose an office management software program that involves networking all office computers together or a web-based program for home based workers or those who regularly travel.

In addition to seeing in print what services and features are included with the purchase of office management software, it is also important that you see for yourself. Many office management software suppliers have video tutorials that show you how the software program works or they should at least have screenshots for you to examine. Be on the lookout for software programs that seem too complicated to use, as they may not be in the best interest of your company or your office manager.

In keeping with examining office management software yourself, if you are able to find an office management software supplier who offers free trial periods, you are urged to accept their offer. Even if the free trial period is only for a week, it will give you or your office manager the opportunity to determine if you can profit from the use of the software program in question.

Another step that you should take, particularly before making any office management software purchases, is that of comparing prices. After a close examination, you will find that many office management software programs are sold by multiple suppliers or online vendors. Searching for the best deal will enable you and your business to achieve a larger return on your investment.

The above mentioned points are just a few of the many points that should be taken into consideration, when examining office management software. Even if you are unsure as to whether or not office management software is right for your business, it is advised that you and your office manager at least take the time to examine your options. You may be surprised with what you find.

Time Management Tips - Developing Good Email Habits

2007-11-14T06:16:00.000-08:00

Time is your most precious resource when you work from home on
the Internet. If your Internet connection goes down or your
computer blows up, the situation can be remedied but if you
waste time, it is gone forever. If you fail to develop effective
time management techniques you will all too often find that the
hours you had intended to use productively have evaporated
without trace. Time, although free, is valuable and it is
irreplaceable: every second is unique and should be treated as
an important asset. You will only manage to save time if you
plan and employ your own personal time management strategy. We
all have different demands being made upon our time, so managing
to save time will be achieved in different ways by each of us.
There is, however, one sure way anyone working at home online
can manage to save time and that is by modifying the way we
treat our email.

The trouble with working online is that your email is always
just a click or two away at any time during your working day. If
you were running an offline business from home, your day would
be centered away from your computer and you would have to make a
conscious decision about when and how often to check your email.
When you are already sitting at your pc and connected to the
Internet, it is just too easy to forget all about time
management techniques and develop bad email habits. If you use
the following time management strategy, you will maintain
control of your working hours and find that you can easily get
more done in less time.

1. Set an email schedule for yourself. Make it a rule only to
check your inbox two or three times a day and set a strict time
limit (ten or fifteen minutes per session is about right) on how
long you spend dealing with email.

2. Don't check your email as soon as you power up your computer
at the start of any work session. You will be at your most alert
and creative during the first hour of work. Use this time to
complete more complicated or difficult tasks.

3. Don't have your email alert permanently on to notify you as
soon as an email hits your mailbox. This will serve to distract
you while you are working and tempt you to abandon the schedule
you have planned.

4. Deal with each email as soon as you read it. Flagging an
email and going back to it to send your reply makes double the
work. The only time you should permit yourself to do this is if
you need to do some research before you reply.

5. Use your bookmark function. You are bound to get emails that
contain a link to a website. Maybe you have subscribed to
interesting online news letters or they could be offers of
useful ebooks or tools. The time you have allocated to your
email session should be used solely for reading and replying to
emails. Bookmark any of the sites that appear worthy of further
investigation and schedule time for a visit. This is the most
dangerous part of dealing with emails: all commercial emails
will have a "hook" with which to catch you, drag you into a
black hole and make your time disappear. You must be alert to
this so that you can unhook yourself and visit these websites at
a time you decide is best for your schedule.

Developing good time management techniques is not difficult.
You do, however, need to be constantly on your guard against
temptations which might make you forget your time management
strategy. Developing good habits and curing bad ones is the
foundation of effective time management techniques.

About The Author: For time management tips and the best work at
home ideas visit Elaine Currie's Free Work At Home Directory
http://www.huntingvenus.com/

Please use the HTML version of this article at:
http://www.isnare.com/html.php?aid=178461

Creating Breakthroughs

2007-10-23T10:35:00.000-07:00

If all organizations were producing breakthroughs, we would be enjoying exponential increases in results. Did you know that creating such breakthroughs often requires a different focus than when making modest improvements?

How can we replace our normal improvement projects with breakthrough progress?

Breakthroughs usually take the combined sweat and tears of many people. But those efforts won’t bear fruit unless the right mix of skills and experience is involved, properly directed by exceptional leaders and by the right thought process.

Let me put this advice in context: It’s an important lesson for those who want to make lots of 2,000 percent solutions (ways of accomplishing 20 times more with the same time, effort, and resources).

The steps for creating a 2,000 percent solution are listed here:

1. Understand the importance of performance measurement.

2. Decide what to measure.

3. Identify the future best practice and measure it.

4. Implement beyond the future best practice.

5. Identify the ideal best practice.

6. Pursue the ideal best practice.

7. Select the right people and provide the right motivation.

8. Repeat the first seven steps.

This article looks at practicing to become more effective in accomplishing step seven, select the right people and provide the right motivation.

Recruit and Coach a Winning Team

People are the critical resource for any organization. Without the right people, it’s difficult to exceed the future best practice and approach the ideal best practice. Keep in mind that few people, no matter how talented, function well in a changing environment. Still fewer can work well on a team instituting changes. One unreasonable doubter can discourage a whole team. Someone who uses too much influence can stifle others. You’re looking to create a rare and delicate balance in your dream team of change makers.

Change? Over My Dead Body!

It might seem that the best way to implement any change is to work with those who know the job best — those who work with the process every day. But if big changes are needed, this approach isn’t always a good idea. Use only the old crew and you will probably run into a very serious foot-dragging stall. Even the most open minded workers lose their perspective over time. Experimental evidence shows that people new to a job have a much easier time with understanding the need for and enjoying the pursuit of changes. They can be taught whatever background they need to know without being stalled by it. The current crew can play devil’s advocate — to keep the new team honest, as it were. But don’t hold their experience against the current crew. Provide them with a new challenge in another part of the organization where they are unfamiliar with the operations.

You need very capable relative strangers to take on a change project, but they don’t have to be people from outside the organization. Look for as wide a range of perspective, skills, and knowledge as you can.

Build a Dream Team

You must find people who are energized or excited by a change. Your ideal team members must see change as a challenge that will help them grow personally. Select team members who will feel that being chosen to work on approaching the ideal best practice is the most wonderful thing that ever happened to them.

Beyond enthusiasm, what do you need? Open-mindedness. Take a cue from Abraham Maslow and his concept of self-actualization: what a person can be, she or he must be (See Motivation and Personality [Harper, 1954]). Maslow characterized the self-actualized, among other characteristics, as displaying higher levels of:

• Efficient perceptions of reality

• Comfort with reality

• Accepting oneself, others, and nature

• Spontaneity

• Simplicity

• Naturalness

• Focus on problems outside themselves

• Detachment

• Preference for privacy

• Autonomy and independence from culture and environment

• Freshness of appreciation and richness of feeling

• Transcendent experience

• Identification with mankind

• Deep interpersonal relations

• Preference for democratic processes

• Ability to differentiate between means and ends

• Nonhostile humor

• Creativity, originality, or inventiveness.

Maslow also spotted significant drawbacks among some of the self-actualized who could be vain, annoying, cold, uncritical, and overgenerous. Obviously, you should seek team members who present the fewest of these drawbacks … even at the risk of losing some creativity.

Don’t be restricted to Maslow’s concept. People who can adapt rapidly to unexpected problems are even more valuable because they point the group in a new direction when everyone else is stuck. You can spot these people by asking them how they solved seemingly impossible problems in the past.

Is There a Leader in the House?

Naturally, choosing the right team leader makes a big difference in your results. Look for a leader who shares the enthusiasm of each team member and knows how to harness that enthusiasm. In addition, you want someone who places the interests of the team and the organization ahead of any desire to exercise power as top dog.

Avoid borrowing a leader from another organization (whether they be consultants or outsourced service providers). Such outsiders will have a harder time reflecting the values of those they lead. If you cannot find an appropriate leader in your organization, be sure to hire someone who will help create the excitement necessary to bring off major changes and who matches your company’s values as closely as possible.

Four leadership qualities are essential to success:

1. Shared values with the organization

2. Understanding the problems thoroughly before beginning the mission

3. Ability to persuade others that the project will succeed

4. Skills relevant to the task.

If your top candidate is in good shape except for skills, consider how you could use some training to fill in those gaps. It’s easier to fill in for ignorance than for a lack of values.

Donald Mitchell is chairman of Mitchell and Company, a strategy and financial consulting firm in Weston, MA. He is coauthor of six books including The 2,000 Percent Squared Solution, The 2,000 Percent Solution, and The Ultimate Competitive Advantage. You can find free tips for accomplishing 20 times more by registering at: ====> http://www.2000percentsolution.com .

Article republished from Copy & Paste Articles

2007-10-21T22:13:00.000-07:00

Large organisations have full time professional accounting staff to prepare the payroll or the payroll function may be outsourced to a payroll bureau. The payroll task in a small business falls to the proprietor demanding time and effort to become familia with payroll legislation and a not insignificant amount of administration time that could be better spent making profits than number crunching. Small business organisations with up to ten employees producing the weekly payroll can easily take an hour or more each week to calculate the income tax and national insurance contributions .

An hour better spent earning profits or at the very least having an extra hour of free time each week. Free time that small business owner's value at a premium with small business owners often working and thinking about work from dawn to dusk 7 days a week. A payroll software package to satisfy the PAYE requirements can be just one part of making that small business more efficient.Small businesses that fail to operate a sound payroll system can produce a negative effect on the employees. Employees expect to be paid and provided the amount is a competitive rate would only rarely have an effect on staff relations.

However operating a payroll system that does not provide each employee with a payslip is like telling your employee he has received a personal letter that was opened for him and discarded as not important. To the employee a payslip is very important. And so important in that every employer has a legal responsibility to provide each employee with a payslip and at the end of each year a P60 End of Year Employees Certificate. A payroll software solution satisfies employee's essential needs and fulfills the legal requirements. Failure to provide employees with payslips can only reduce the respect hat employee has for his employer.

Every employee must receive a payslip that shows the amount of income tax and national insurance deducted from the gross pay. Employers must also calculate the employer's national insurance contribution. Employers not using a payroll software package such as available from DIY Accounting Payroll Software must design their own payslip to give to employees to satisfy legal requirements.Running a PAYE system and operating a payroll in the UK can be a burdensome task to comply with all the relevant legislation. HMCE provide much expertise advice in this area both via their website and each year through the distribution of the Employers CD-Rom. To fully appreciate all the technicalities and complete all the correct documents such as the P11 Deductions Working sheet is time consuming.

It doesn't have to be a problem. Payroll Software can automate this knowledge and functions and is available at insignificant cost. DIY Accounting Payroll Software package is available for up to 20 employees at a cost of £15 to £25. That is a payroll software package that could save a small business over an hour a week, for twenty employees more like two hours, for less than 50p per week. All small business owners should at least consider suitable efficient payroll software.Many payroll software packages are written using databases and can put many small business owners off using them due to both the cost and the fear of the unknown complexity of using such a payroll package. Many payroll software packages written on a database provide an excellent solution but have a tendency to be extremely politically correct and cover all potential rules and regulations and consequently become more complex to operate as they can demand at least a minimum knowledge of the payroll system.

There are other PAYE solutions. Written on excel sheets the DIY Accounting Payroll Software irequires no payroll software experience with minimum of entries to produce all the essential PAYE calculations of income tax and national insurance. In addition excel copies of the time consuming P11 Deductions working sheet, P60 Employees Certificate and the P35 Annual Employers Return are all automated to save the small business valuable administration time. A payroll software solution written on excel can also be used with an open office spreadsheet package but not least all the entries are visible and therefore transparent. Errors and mistakes can be easily corrected simply by changing the numbers on the payroll ensuring the payroll is produced both quickly and accurately.

Payroll Software is an effective tool that should receive serious consideration by all small business proprietors.Payroll Software also has the advantage because it can be simple and fast to use of avoiding late payments to the revenue and the consequent unwanted letters and potential fines this can invoke. By having all the information required for the monthly or quarterly revenue payments late penalties can be avoided and by producing the Annual Employers return on time small business owners can submit their returns online and receive a tax free online filing bonus. The current online foiling bonus being £150 and substantially more than the payroll software might have cost. And it's Tax Free. As they say in Yorkshire. "If thar you ever gets owt for nowt, Tec it"

Article Source: http://www.myarticlemall.com

Terry Cartwright is a qualified accountant in the UK designing accounting and payroll software packages for small to medium sized business through his website DIY Accounting, Payroll specifically produced for up to 20 employees providing simple Payroll Software written on excel spreadsheets.
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Role of First- Line Supervisors-Promotion of Harmoniouns Labour – Managemnt Relations

2006-09-09T22:08:00.000-07:00

Role of First- Line Supervisors-Promotion of Harmoniouns Labour – Managemnt Relations

By
Dr.A Sreekumar Menon,
Psychologist and Specialist in Management Sciences

Satisfactory Industrial Relations at the Plant Level is essentially a process of developing harmonious relations between management and workers vis-à-vis trade unions and real concern about each other. Satisfactory bi-partite relations create a climate in which management and trade unions bargain effectively and reach agreements on terms and conditions, based on consensus and management implements collective agreements promptly. Both parties adhere to certain voluntary codes of conduct, so that they are able to resolve conflicts peacefully through negotiations and contribute to productivity and overall efficiency of the company. Under healthy Labour-Management Relations, neither the management nor the labour resorts to coercive methods in order to make the other party comply with their demands. For instance, workers do not get involved in such unproductive practices, as ‘go slow’, tardiness, strikes, gheraos, etc., They, on the other hand, put in their best efforts into work, develop a sense of positive discipline, reveal overall satisfaction with their job and commitment to company goals – all of which are mutually related. Similarly, the management reveals authentic and supportive relations with the majority unions and implements collective agreements, in all fairness, shows employee orientation, avoids pressurizing and victimizing union representatives for their union affiliation and resorting to dismissals of employees and lock-outs.

The quality of Labour- management Relations at the plant level is usually judged in terms of such indices as man-days lost due to un-authorized absenteeism, strikes and lock-outs, number of workers involved, and so on. It is also understood in terms of the failure on the part of management and trade union to reach collective agreements, resolve shop-floor grievances, and deal with disciplinary problems in a positive way.

There are certain limitations in using such indices. For instance, these are “post hoc” measures in the sense that they tell what happened already. These criteria are not much helpful in identifying conditions within the organization, which can be controlled in order to improve labour-management relations. These indices, at best, help to understand the gravity of the Industrial Relations situations.

Because of the predominantly labour-oriented polices of our Government, in consonance with the ideals of democratic socialism and the welfare state, we find, that the balance of power between employers and employees and their trade unions, in the area of Industrial Relations is shifting and, in many cases, in favor of employees and their trade unions. The top management experiences increasing constraints in using their traditional authority over the workforce in ensuring satisfactory employee performance and discipline, because of increased worker protection through labour legislation. The disciplinary procedures, for instance, are so complicated and legally involving that it is easy for an employer to get rid of his wife than perhaps to get rid of his unsatisfactory employee. Again the management cannot expect an outcome in their favour when a dispute is referred to an outside party, for conciliation and arbitration. Due to number of factors obtaining in the Industrial relations scene, such as populist and political pressure on Government to pass labor-oriented legislation and the popular stance of our democratic Government to meet minimum needs and raise the standard of living of the masses, we find amendments to every labour legislation bringing more and more concessions to labour. The latest example is the amendments to the E.S.I act of 1984, which has extended its coverage considerably. This trend in our Industrial Relations system is not only going to stay, but also going to be increasingly pronounced in time to come. What are the implications of these changes in our labour policies and for formulating Personnel and Industrial Relations Policies of the management? Some of the following implications are clearly discernible.

1.The top management cannot solely rely, as it used to, on conventional legalistic and administrative approaches, such as collective bargaining, disciplinary procedures, running of bipartite consultative committees, administration of labour-welfare, etc., to sustain and promote harmony in labour–management Relations. Again, the conventional way of handling these Labour Relations practices betrays the spirit with which they were formulated. These are practiced in such ritualistic and routine fashion that they are robbed of their real meaning and value.

2.They can no longer take a narrow view of Labour-Management Relations, judging its satisfactoriness from such criteria as successful negotiations, exchanging concessions largely monetary, across the bargaining table, nor by considering such indices as the number of ma-days lost due to ‘go-slow’, strikes, lock out, negligence, accidents, damage to machinery and equipments, absenteeism and so on, from the point of ‘action plans’. Going by these, diagnosis and prevention of labour problems are analogous to conducting a post-mortem examination of a patient to diagnose his disease and prescribing therapy. On the other hand, they should consider the overall job satisfaction of shop-floor employees and their positive attitudes and sentiments, which emerge from the former as true reflections of the quality of labour-management Relations.

Jobs provide several sources of satisfaction. Conflicts between management and workers do not always occur on financial issues, although the apparent cause always is some sort of financial consideration. Underlying frustrations, due to reasons other than money, are easily articulated in the form of money demands, as being more tangible than others, can be articulated easily. Money demands, many a time are compensations for lack of other sources of satisfaction on the job, negotiated by the employees at the sub-conscious level.

When the employees are generally contented in their jobs not only financial terms, but in non-monetary terms, they develop loyalty towards the organization for which they work, and they support only responsible union leadership and throw their weight against irresponsible outside influences from persons and political parties with vested interests. They do not allow the mature union- management Relations to be exploited by outside agencies. Outside leadership in unions is invariably a constant menace facing the managements and under the socio-political conditions existing in our country today, we cannot hope to root out such external interferences through legislation. To keep the external influences at bay, the management should maintain a generally well-contented workforce and develop “rapport” with them. If the managements cannot develop rapport with their workers, who are with them for the most part of their working life, the outside leaders are there to fill in the vacuum and gain control over the workers.

Supervisory Role in Harmonious Labour-Management Relations Vis-à-vis Maintaining Generally Contented Workforce.

When we consider the harmony in Labour Relations, essentially as maintaining a generally contented labour-force, the role of supervisors becomes clear to us.

The attitudes and behaviours of the First-level Supervisors contribute substantially to employee satisfaction of several jobs related needs and there positive sentiments towards them and towards their organizations. Improper attitudes and behaviour on the part of First Line Supervisors generate employee frustration, negative sentiments, low morale and motivation, employee grievances, resentment, rigid, and rebellious attitudes, dodging their duties and skapegoating, resistance to change, work apathy, inter-personnel, group and inter-group rivalries, (as opposed to inter-personnel trust, support, mutual respect, spirit of accommodation, desire to work as a member of a team and co-operate in work towards a common goal,) developing clichés,etc.

Generally, both top and middle managements do not realize fully how the First Line Supervisor can make or mar harmonious Labour Relations. Maintenance of labour Relations is often considered as a function to be carried out by the top management in consultation with Personnel, Industrial Relations and Labour Departments of the Unit. In other words, it is considered as a “staff function” and line managements such as Departmental Heads and the First Line Supervisors are generally kept out of the picture.

The First Line Supervisors represent the first line management. They occupy strategic position in the organizational hierarchy. They often referred to us “middle-men”. They are members of two subsystems, Viz., the managerial structure and the immediate task force. They are the one who are in day-to-day contact with the work force, rather than the middle or the top managements.

First Line Supervisors, such as, Foremen and Shift Officers, perform broadly two types of duties:(1) technical tasks and (2) personnel. Their technical role may include giving job instructions, solving work related problems, providing facilities and resources, maintaining production targets through supervision of individual and group work, appraising individual performances for maintaining work standers, and so on. Personnel duties may involve employee appraisal for administration of rewards (such as merit increments, promotions) as a regular feed back to the top management and career development, training employees, enforcing work discipline, handling employee grievances, administering labour welfare programmes etc.

In discharging these duties, the supervisors should maintain a fine balance between the organizational needs of productivity and employee discipline and employee needs-physiological, social and psychological and maintain their effective and positive control over shop-floor workers by (1) exercising their operational and technical skills, and (2) by using Human Relations or behavioral skills, including proper use of their organizational authority.

The First Line Supervisors should enjoy the confidence of the workforce, whom they are supervising. They enjoy their confidence, if they are technically competent and if they themselves show signs of motivated performance such as drive and enthusiasm, perseverance to work through difficult problem and situations, and if they are impartial in handling the labour-force, for whenever workers come up against difficulties they cannot solve, they must be able to fall back upon their supervisors. They will never retain their confidence, if their subordinates feel that they know more than them. Theoretical knowledge and practical experience should stand them in good stead. Their perspectives regarding the operational situations should be much broader than those of the workers. They should be able to think about more viable alternatives (options) in doing a job and should have good judgment of the feasibility and safety aspects of mechanical situations. They should themselves be efficient, and be prompt in discharging their supervisory duties. If they are diligent, hard working and well disciplined, they can expect their subordinates to follow suit. There is a proverb: “As the king, so the people”. Supervisory jobs always generate high role pressures. They have to reconcile opposing forces, and strike a balance between incompatible demands.

They have to attend to several problems simultaneouslyontheshop-floor- such as machine breakdowns, speeding up production in a particular production line to meet urgent delivery schedule giving alternate assignment to idle hands due to machine breakdowns, running about for timely delivery of spare parts, supply of raw materials, drawing out the best efforts of employees, etc. And handle all these problems with dexterity. Employees watch with what amount of dexterity they resolve these issues. They should be able to tolerate ambiguity of the situation in the system. They should emphasis on achieving production targets by providing proper facilities and needed help rather then leaving the production decisions entirely on employees and thus following a laissez-faire approach. For want of clarity on work- related matters, the shop-floor workers may suffer from anxiety and insecurity.

There is sufficient evidence from many studies that predominant use of formal authority of the punitive type by supervisors (such as ordering, criticizing, etc) leads to loss of their status in the eyes of their subordinates. The workers resent overtly such an approach. Use of such negative power by supervisors does not help full improvement in the quality and quantity of output; on the other hand, it develops negative attitudes on the part of employees. In contrast to the close punitive type of supervision, often called “breathing down the neck of the workers”, there are situations in which close supervision, followed by guidance and concern for employee welfare, yields good results. Favourable sentiments on the part of workers are likely to be generated by supervisors, the subordinates are benefited in a situation in which the subordinates seek assistance and in such situations, the bonds of relationship between supervisors and shop-floor employees get established.

First Line supervisors who display Human Relations skill in supervising people express the following kinds of behavior:

1. Being permissive rather than being coercive, using their knowledge more often than their formal authority, providing facts and information, being open in giving and receiving feed back and accepting self-responsibility for failure rather than passing the buck.
2. Being friendly and easily approachable, showing a sense of respect towards and confidence in subordinates as opposed to being farmland impersonal (keeping social distance) and encouraging group efforts rather than supervising them individually.
3. Being fair and objective in dealing with subordinates, not playing favorites in the hands of a few workers, not practicing “divide and rule” and not going by caste, community and other considerations in taking personal decisions. Treating all workers as equal, having faith in their skills and capacities, considering every worker as having potentiality and as capable of contributing her work, Objective in assessing the performance of workers, and keeping training and development as one of the objectives of employees appraisal. If a supervisor is empathetic, workers are likely to bring problems to him. This gives him opportunity to influence their behavior.
4. Giving due appreciation to the work of the subordinates through favourable assessment for promoting them and through oral appreciation of the work when the workers put in extra work and show extra enthusiasm. Some supervisors may think that, after all, workers are expected to give their best returns for the money they are paid and why should they get extra reward through verbal praise?
5. Granting enough freedom to them with accountability, involving them and allowing their participation in planning work and other decision matters, depending upon their capacity to share responsibilities. Providing additional responsibility is an act of recognizing their abilities and transposing confidence in them, which acts as an incentive.
6. Representing the workers whom they supervise, speaking and acting as representative of the group before top management. Maintaining cordial relations and having influence with supervisors (middle and top management). Just as the management would consider the supervisors to be their representatives, so also the workers. They voice their needs, grievances and aspirations regarding earnings, working conditions, and welfare facilities before their supervisors who can play a role in meeting their expectations by the top management. It is quite likely that that the scope and extent of authority, which a supervisor wields and can exercise, is delimited by work rules, management policies and authority structure existing in an organization, for example, some of the employee demands like those for higher wages, bonus, etc., may have a bearing on wider company policy and the supervisors may hardly have any say in the matter. However, it is conceivable that the outlook of the supervisors towards such employee grievances and the approach they adopt in dealing with such grievances and the approach they adopt in dealing with such grievances may reflect how well they have played their roles. Even if they cannot solve their problems, they contribute to healthy Human Relations, if they show interest in employee problems, interest in patient listening and sincerity in solving them. By listening to their complaints and advising (counseling) them, they will also be providing the workers the opportunity “ to let off their steam”.

Top and Middle Management Practices regarding the Role of First- Line Supervisors.

First Line supervisors do not function in an organizational vacuum. They have role and Authority Relations with the riles of middle and top managements. Thus, their contribution to harmonious Labour Relations depends not only on their operational and Human Relations skills, dealt above as also upon the following parameters.

1. Authority delegated to them in operational and personnel matters, such as grievance redressal, and employee discipline.
2. The degree of equalitarian relations, shown by the middle and the top management towards the supervisors and the promptness with which they act on their feedback.
3. The extent of participation they allow to supervisors in departmental decision-making.
4. The extent to which they support legitimate supervisory authority over workers and
5. The extent to which the supervisors are involved in Industrial Relations matters by higher levels.

Some of the studies done by the author in Indian enterprises reveal that the higher levels do not involve First-Level Supervisors in decision making in general and in Industrial Relations matters in particular. The top management and the Personnel Department deal with the shop-floor employees and or their union leaders directly in matters, such as grievance redressal and disciplinary procedure, without taking the supervisors into confidence. They keep a social distance with them. They maintain formal relationship and the communication is minimum. Similarly, no weight age is given to their assessment of employees in promotion and other rewards by the administration. The higher levels of management may condone the serious disciplinary problems in the shop floor, thinking that it may develop into serious and volatile Union-Management conformations. The supervisors who initiate disciplinary actions against the erring workers may not receive support from higher levels or may be rebutted. Sometimes, the decisions taken by the supervisors in matters of employee discipline may be reversed at the instance of union pressure on top management, causing considerable embarrassment to supervisors.

Thus, their legitimate authority over the shop-floor employees is eroded because of the above practices at higher levels of management. With very little authority and carrying a load of personal frustration, we can hardly expect them to contribute much to the harmony of Labour Management Relations.

Many scholars have studied the conditions in the organizational situation, which hinder supervisory efficiency. For instance.

Rangnekar says that in many cases, the top management continues to put pressure on the first line management to get results. However, people in these levels are often unable to pass the pressure, as it is confronted with organized employees at the lowest level. In the case of serious conflict between management and workers, lower levels of management get squeezed, between the two sides. The new manager at junior and middle management levels has often received some degree of management education. This has led him to expect participation in the management decision-making process. However, in actual life, he finds himself more as the implementer of decision arrived at without the benefit of his thinking a-real messenger of the so-called “decision-makers”

Indian studies on the Motivation of Managers and Supervisors have brought out the following findings.

There is absence of a number of incentives in their jobs. They feel that jobs are monotonous and that they are unable to test their skills and make use of experience. They perceive that their jobs do not allow them sufficient freedom to take decisions, nor do they provide them with opportunity for sharing adequate responsibility and for learning developing new skills. They feel a sense of being left out of the mainstream of organizational events due to inadequate communication and supportive feedback regarding there and other’s jobs. These imply that the organizational structure, design of jobs and authority-control patters at the middle and First Line Managerial levels are not conducive for supervisory effectiveness. The supervisory discontentment with their jobs instigates them to behave in irrational ways. Their work behaviour may be characterized by apathy, lack of result-orientation, shying away from responsibility and passing the buck, sense of alienation, rigidity, resistance to change, a tendency to organize along trade union lines for collective action and identifying more the workers whom they supervise and their unions, with the idea that their bargaining position with the management will be strengthened. Thus, though the top management may exhort that First-Line Supervisors are a part of the top management, their policies and actions in regard to supervisory jobs may be such that the above kinds of feelings are not developed in them.

In addition to the above kinds of frustrating experiences on the part of supervisors which give rise to frustration-instigated behaviour, they may also copy the bad examples of authoritarian and autocratic leadership styles of their bosses and may exercise this kind of leadership on the rank and file, which meets with resentment. Thus, if the first Line Supervisors were to provide a productive and humanitarian social climate to the rank and file, they should in turn receive the same treatment from their superiors. The old adage “ Love begets love and hanred begets hatred” is truer in organizational actions than in anything else. An organization is composed of inter-dependent parts and we cannot cleanse one part of the organization, if the other inter-related parts are far from being hygienic.

Thus, in short, it is necessary to maintain a supervisory team, which is high on motivation and morale, in addition to ensuring there operational and Human Relations skills, through supervisory training and development. This also paves the way to positive contributions to Labour- Management Relations from supervisors.

References:
1. Sharu S Rangnekr Middle management in search of identity paper published in the proceedings of the conference come seminar of Officers organistions, Bombay, June 3, 1973, p.10-15
2. For elaboration for the above findings see Dayal Ishwar and Sharma B A Strike of supervisory staff in State Bank of India, Bombay, Progressive Corporation, 1971.
3. A.SreekumarMenon Managerial Unionisum in Indian Business an Industry and its Management, Lok Udyog, March 1975
4. Lakshmi Narain Manangerial Compensation in Public Enterprises, New Delhi, Oxford,I.B.H 1973
5. J B P Sinah Some Problems Of Public Sector Organisations. Delhi, National, 1973.

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Organizational Climate and Work Motivation

2006-06-24T03:21:00.000-07:00

Beyond doubt, the primary goal of business and industry is to create wealth – to achieve better returns on investment so that larger economic gains can be shared by employers, employees, and consumers. However, creation of wealth is not spontaneous. The goals of human organization are to be met in order to achieve the economic objectives. Organizations normally provide large number of material rewards, such as attractive salary and other benefits and comfortable working conditions. The implicit assumption underlying this approach is that the contented work force is better producing. This assumption has been seriously questioned in a number of studies1. Thus, organizations should evolve more ambitious schemes helpful for the realization of employee potential and morale.

In order to achieve this, an understanding of the conditions in an organization having bearing on employee morale and their motivation (desire) to work is necessary. Keeping this in view, this paper discusses some of the conditions in organizations under the headings: Organizational Climate; Socio-Cultural System of Employee Needs; Work Motivation; Organizational Climate Factors and Opportunities for Need Satisfaction and Need Dissatisfaction; Organizational Typologies and Work Motivation; and Indian Industrial and Business Organizations.

Organizational Climate

Any business and industrial organization is a techno-socio-psychological system. Technology is a broad term used to include means and procedures instrumental in discharging the functions of an organization. The “means and procedures” depend upon the goals of the organization. Let us consider, for instance, a company manufacturing pharmaceuticals. Machines and other automatic and semi-automatic devices are used in preparing pharmaceutical products. Apart from these, other means and procedures necessary for achieving the goals of a pharmaceutical company are also adopted. The pharmaceutical company purchases chemicals and other raw materials, keeps inventory of items, checks the quality, meets the needs of the consumer, develops new processes and techniques, expands and diversifies, etc. These functions are discharged appropriately by adopting the so-called modern management practices. Use of Techniques such as quality control, research and development, work or output measurement, operations research are some of the technological tools used by industry.
The management practices which a company adopts are interdependent in nature. This means that a company which adopts one management practice (called modern) will generally be predisposed favourably towards a number of other practices. For instance, the management which undertakes a systematic analysis of its product market will equally be concerned with controlling the quality of production. Baumgartel2 in a study on penetration of modern management practices in Indian business organizations found that the companies which are innovative adopt a number of modern management practices.

As opposed to technological practices, there are practices related to management of personnel. Personnel practices ail proper administration of labour resources just as technological practices help rationalizing methods and procedures. Some of the personnel practices are proper hiring practices, employee development programmes, use of job evaluation in developing job descriptions, salary administration, and so on.

Just as the technological practices reflect part of the larger organizational culture, the personnel management practices also reflect the larger organizational culture. This part of the organizational culture is referred to as organizational climate.

Organizational Climate Defined.
In production organizations, there is the task (mechanical)-individual interaction. The person deals with machines, materials, or data and behaves in prescribed ways, as per the dictates of the organization. The organization builds up certain expectations, provides certain need fulfillment opportunities, and controls certain actual and potential behaviours. These socio-personal interaction processes constitute organizational climate.

Baumgartel3 defines organizational climate along the following lines. “Organizational climate is a product of leadership practices, communication patterns, enduring and systematic characteristics of the working relationships among persons and divisions of any particular organization.” He considers the following characteristics observable in organizational life as determining the developmental organizational climate. They are :

1. Growth-orientation
2. Providing opportunity to executives to use new knowledge
3. Willingness to train the executives
4. Stimulate and approve of innovations, and experimentation
5. Higher management being considerate of lower management
6. Giving freedom to set own performance goals
7. Involving various hierarchical levels in decision-making
8. Showing confidence in competence and judgement of top management
9. Having free and open communication within management
10. Using performance as major criteria for promotions
11. Existence of interpersonal trust among executives
12. Not having restrictions through rules and procedures
13. Arranging conferences and group discussions
14. Absence of interpersonal conflict and rivalry
15. Planning new products.

Technological Practices and Organizational Climate
Both technological practices and organizational climate reflect in organizational structure, administrative practices, and management control systems. Although one may find certain technological practices co-existing with certain organizational climate factors, such associations are not universal. This fact has come out in a number of Indian studies4. Baumgartel5 correlated items on modern management practices with items on Organizational climate and found them yielding low correlations. This implies that the technological practices and organizational climate are mutually independent or orthogonal in nature.

Technological practices contribute to mechanical aspects of organizational production, whereas favourable organizational climate contributes to work efficiency vis-à-vis employee motivation. This view is attested by Basu6 when he says that “investment and technology are by themselves insufficient for the growth of the economy, it is only when competent management is brought to bear on enterprises that the latter can achieve the objectives for which they were created”.

Organizational climate can be described in terms of some of the following characteristics7 :

1. Risk-Taking versus Complacent
2. Compromising versus Unilateral
3. Unstructuring versus Structuring
4. Warmth and Support versus Lack of Warmth and Support
5. Decentralization versus Centralization
6. Expert Persuasion versus Coercion
7. Problem Solving Approach versus Status Approach to Authority
8. Co-operative versus Competitive Approach
9. Employee-Task Fit versus Lack of Employee-Task Fit
10. Performance-based Reward versus Expediency Reward
11. High Performance Goals versus Low Performance Goals

Some of the organizational actions which the above aspects characterize may be indicated.

Risk-Taking Versus Complacent

In running business and production, the organizations need take risks (acting under conditions of relative uncertainty). Risks might be of varied kinds, such as those taken in the event of technological decisions, which have bearing on employees and those which are related to personnel matters per se. Any issue throws us many courses (many a times mutually conflicting) of actions. No single approach is normally apparent in the solution of a problem. This is much more so in the complex world of business. Apart from the uncertainty of the situation, top managements might differ in the extent to which they encourage the employees to take risk. Some top managements may restrict the chance of their lower-level managers and workers taking risk by designing authoritarian set-up and practices; while others might encourage risk-taking at all levels by setting up decentralized structures.

Compromising Versus Unilateral

Certain top managements are unilateral in their approach. They resist compromise. They are more rigid than flexible. Dayal8 refers to such orientation of managements as “…absence of the ethics of collaboration”. He holds that in such organizations management-union and inter-departmental relationships breed suspicion and distrust. Unilateral organizations permit only low levels of conflict and confrontation. On the contrary, the compromising organizations think that the conflicts in interests and purposeful confrontations between different groups (like management and the workers or trade unions) are inevitable and healthy signs of openness in organizational communication. Critical attitudes are viewed by the management as helpful in receiving useful suggestion and feedback for its improvement.

Unstructuring Versus Structuring

Organizations may differ in the degree of clarity in roles at various hierarchical levels. In some cases, role ambiguity (opposite of role clarity) might be substantial. The role ambiguity is substantial when the job duties are extremely unstructured and unspecified. In a situation of high ambiguity, the job holders lack clear understanding of their duties, responsibilities, and positions in the authority structure. The deleterious effects of role ambiguity and role conflict (the situation in which a subordinate is under conflicting demands from more than one superior) in terms of tension and anxiety and poor efficiency have been brought out by Kahn et al.9 The study by Menon10 brings out certain interesting findings regarding clarity in tasks and in reporting relationships. More is the subordinate expectation that his superior should be specific in assigning work, and less the tendency of the superior to be specific, more is the former’s dissatisfaction with his superior’s leadership and less his feeling that his superior and colleagues support him. In such a situation, he hardly experiences learning and work responsibility. Even employees who want to do their best (achievement-oriented) look for role clarity.

Lack of role clarity encourages arbitrariness in decision making and management practices. In an ambiguous organizational situation, the manager’s action is determined by expediency of the situation and his personal skill and competence and individual personality. There is too much reliance on the individual executive. A study by Roy11 reveals that one of the dysfunctional elements in the working of private sector industry in India is the arbitrariness and nepotism on the part of management. There are hardly any work rules and procedures defining the authority and responsibility of the employees at different levels. Singh12, discussing the management practices in private organizations in India, says that “organizational structures of many of the largest Indian enterprises are haphazard; organizational charts are rate and even where they exist they are a secret. Managerial jobs are seldom defined or described.”

Although the above discussion points out the dysfunctional nature of role ambiguity, it is to be borne in mind that the other extreme, viz., high structure (role clarity), is also dysfunctional. High structuring delimits the freedom on the part of individual employees and even depersonalizes the work (this feature is commonly referred to as rule-orientation in bureaucratic settings). High-structure situation has the following characteristics of organizational behaviour. Interpersonal interaction, horizontal and vertical, is minimum. The work activities are hardly coordinated. Group goals are not visible for the individual employees. The opportunity for self-determination and participation is minimum. A number of investigators13 have found that job satisfaction, mental health, and level of performance are all directly related to opportunities for self-expression, self-control, participation, and individual freedom and responsibility. Menon14 found that the personal work efficiency of supervisors is high when their superiors provide them with personal support and encourage them by involving them in organizational decision-making.

Warmth and Support Versus Lack Of Warmth And Support

Organizations differ in the extent to which they provide personal and work-related support, and warmth and friendliness in interpersonal relationships. The members in the organization at various levels need know what is expected of them in relation to others. Those who are higher in the hierarchy and who have the role of coordinating activities at the lower levels communicate to those who are below them. The subordinates also look for friendly relationships with their superiors. Menon15 has pointed out the following important aspects of warmth and support in interpersonal relationships. He found that supervisors felt responsible and committed when they experienced satisfaction due to opportunities in the job for learning experience and due to opportunities in the job for learning experience and due to its challenging nature in interpersonal atmosphere characterized by support from superiors. The support from the supervisors seems to be instrumental to the development of responsibility and work commitment especially on the part of employees who do not look for detailed work instructions. Apart from the support facilitating goal achievement it also seems to lead to the feeling of prestige in the group particularly on the part of those who desire social relationships.

Decentralization Versus Centralization
In certain organizations, persons at different levels of hierarchy possess authority according to their levels of decision-making and task execution. Such organizations have a decentralized structure. In a decentralized set-up persons at lower levels interact with those in the parallel and interrelated levels as well as with those immediately higher. They have sufficient freedom in their areas of functioning and also in contributing to the overall objectives.16 The increased interaction helps build better coordination. Again, in such a participatory set-up, the persons are clear about their goals and their commitment is strengthened through group pressure. Participation in decision-making calls for better abilities than participation in executive functions. In a decentralized set-up, the superiors have confidence in the competence of their subordinates. There is mutual trust among persons. The organization grants adequate responsibility and commensurate authority.

In contrast, in centralized organizations, the authority rests in the hands of a few top echelons. The subordinates receive specific instructions. The freedom and the conditions for the expression of the individual’s talents are limited. The centralization of authority might take two forms: (i) formation of bureaucratic set-up (emphasis on rules and procedures), and (ii) an unstable and ill-defined organizational structures. The first condition is seen in the management system of Public enterprises in India17 and the second in the management of Private enterprises in India18.

Under Bureaucratic set-up, the individual goes by rules. In such rule-oriented structures, the individual hardly takes any risk. With everyone following the fixed path, co-ordination of functions is hardly achieved. The persons in a Bureaucratic structure work for their individual goals rather than for the overall organizational goals. Lacking awareness of real goals, the employees derive satisfaction of goal achievement by ardently following the rules. In the context of increasing complexity of functions and specialization, persons who lack individual goal orientation and appreciation of common goals work for cross-purposes.
Unstable and ill-defined organizational climate is characterized by the following organizational actions. The subordinates are given specific instructions and are closely supervised. As many control checks as possible and are permitted by technology are instituted. This type of organization follows no line of command. The higher echelons have direct access to all levels and hardly any question of bypassing the authority arises.

Expert Persuasion Versus Coercive Approach
Persuasive approach in an organization is characterized by a number of following kinds of behaviours. Superior guides the subordinate towards larger organizational goals without unduly restricting freedom on the part of the latter. He makes available to him the facilities. He is friendly and accepting. He is consistent and fair in practices. He works towards the well-being of his subordinate. He lends adequate support and help.

In contrast, the superior who adopts a coercive approach exhibits certain other behaviours. His main concern is to see that his subordinate submits to him. He uses punishment to control his subordinate. His predominant set is to point out the mistakes of his subordinate rather than correcting him and making him learn new experience. He is, more often than not, inconsistent in administering punishments. Such a superior is hardly rated as fair by subordinates. Superior develops in the minds of subordinate feelings of failure and thus coerces compliance to his ways, which are right by virtue of his being a superior. Different kinds of punishments such as criticism, disapproval, withholding relevant task-related and personal information, withholding positive feedback, providing false feedback in the form of criticism, etc., are administered.

Problem-Solving Approach Versus Status Approach To Authority
In both types of structures, viz., decentralization and bureaucratic, there is a certain amount of authority at all levels either for making decisions or in the execution of tasks.

The employees might take to a status approach if the organization projects hierarchical distinctions more as reflection of status than as reflection of differential competence. Employees feel that the hierarchical levels reflect differential competence only when they share the feeling that the organization is fair in its hiring and promotion practices. Both bureaucratic and ill-defined organizations cannot convince the members that hierarchical distinctions are reflections of the differential competence of the members, because in neither set-up, persons are selected or placed on positions because they fit those positions well.
In the case of status approach, superiors see their ability to control their subordinates as source of their status rather than as a means to direct their work towards solving the problems. Status-conscious superiors will protect their status in the eyes of their subordinates by coercing them to submit to them. They will be less concerned about their subordinates’ contributions and more concerned about their subordinates’ recognition of their superiority. They are touchy and ego-defensive. One of the dysfunctions of centralization of authority is the operation of the status approach to authority at lower levels of the organization.
Problem-solving approach is a contrast to status approach. In problem-solving approach, the persons use their authority in helping subordinates to solve the problems.

Co-Operative Versus Individual Competitive Approach
Under co-operative approach, the employees are encouraged to work for common goals and no employee is put in competition with another as in the case of competitive approach. The rewards are linked with the performance of the group members rather than with the achievement of individual members. In the cooperative approach, an atmosphere of mutual understanding and trust prevails. The members are aware of each other’s strengths and weaknesses and capitalize on their knowledge. The co-operative approach develops an atmosphere where the functions are coordinated. In the group climate the mutual acceptance contributes to status and recognition. The ability of the group members to be mutually helpful also leads to the satisfaction of their need for power.

Employee-Task Fit Versus Lack Of Employee-Task Fit

In certain organizations, the tasks are assigned according to the ability and competence of the persons. For example, from among those having the same technical background the company might select some for the job of sales executives while it might emphasize interpersonal relations for the positions of technical supervisors in charge of sub-assemblies. The persons experience meaningfulness and challenge in their work when it calls for the best of their abilities and when the task is of moderate difficulty. He also learns the better way of doing the work. The person-task fit activates the higher-order needs.

Performance-Based Reward Versus Expediency Reward
Some organizations make conscious attempts to effectively link reward with the effort of the employees through the use of techniques such as Job Evaluation, Objective Performance Appraisal, Suggestion Scheme, and so on. According to theory of motivation to be discussed later, the management can expect the employee to work in a particular way only if the employee sees that he will be rewarded in terms of his various need satisfactions. This particular aspect of linking rewards with employee efforts and its bearing on their work motivation has been dealt with in detail by Porter and Lawler19. The employees will perceive that their effort is rewarded only if they feel (Vroom20 has pointed out that subjective feeling is more potent than reality in eliciting behaviour) that they have been assigned work which calls for their ability and that management rewards their efforts when warranted, through such measures as recognition of work (praise), giving promotions and merit increases, and assigning more responsibility. In a performance-based climate, the individual receives self-generating task-related feedback conducive for work motivation. The employees also feel that organization is objective in its approach21 and encourages employees initiative and growth.
Another aspect of performance-based reward is the question of individual versus group reward. The organization might be orienting towards individual approach in the sense it may reward individual’s behaviours such as the competitive output, or it might have group orientation, in the sense that it may reward behaviours which contribute to the goals of production in a section or Department such as the promptness with which people meet the demands of other sections, coordinative efforts, etc. In certain kinds of work such as those of supervisors in textile mills,22 pursuit towards the group goals weighs heavier than pursuits towards individual achievements.
In contrast, in the expediency-reward context, the employees do not feel that the organization rewards its employees either financially or otherwise according to their effort. They might feel that they should satisfy the membership requirements of an organization in order to justify the acceptance of the rewards.
High Performance Goals Versus Low Performance Goals
Certain organizations may set high goals of employee performance while others may rest content with the average level of employee performance which keeps the business going.
Likert23 points out the need for setting high performance goals. He says that the management system 4, which he advocates as successful and effective, “should have high performance aspirations, but this is not enough. Every member should have high performance aspirations as well. Since these high performance goals should not be imposed upon employees, there must be a mechanism through which employees can help set the high-level goals which the satisfaction of their own needs requires.”

Socio – Cultural System Of Employee Needs
Persons work in organizations for material and other gains. Studies on job satisfaction have shown that they try to satisfy monetary and non-monetary needs. Although doing something and that again well is itself encouraging to prompt action again, working calls for a number of physical and social conditions. The person enters the organization with certain dispositions and expectations rooted in the family, social, and cultural milieu. Organizations meet certain of their expectations and suppress others. The person undergoes a process of adaptation to organizational processes. Such individual adaptation is a constant and dynamic process. The persons as employees voluntarily submit to the organization by observing rules and codes of conduct. The persons accordingly behave in a formal organization in a more organized way than they do in their informal organizational life. The general outcome of the influence processes is winning of the organization over the employees. Such influence of the organization over the employees has direct bearing on their work performance, although the problems as to what kind of work performance is the consequence of what precise nature of influence, is not yet understood clearly.
Employee works or is prompted to work for the organization because, the organization fulfils certain of his needs or because the employee can expect in the organization opportunities for satisfaction of certain other needs. Conglomeration of needs is developed in the process of socio-cultural propensity for need satisfaction. The desire on the part of the employee to work in order to achieve certain things which he wants and which he can obtain in the process of work is referred to as motivation to work and the effort he actually puts in reflects in work performance.24
The needs which the employees seek to satisfy can be conveniently understood in terms of the Maslowian25 systems of needs, viz., (i) Physiological, (ii) Security, (iii) Social, (iv) Ego, and (v) Self-actualization. Each of the above classes of needs subsumes many specific needs. However, certain salient and specific needs which can be realized through certain conditions of specific organizational climate can be discussed. Physiological needs relate to food, shelter, and sex. Security needs include the need for continuous economic support, in the form of the job security, and steady income, the need for structure and the need to perceive consistency, and the related need of being able to predict a situation. In economic security, the concern is with economic gains. In emotional security, the concern is for structure and consistency in situations. The need for structure and consistency is reflected in the subordinate’s desire to anticipate the reaction of his boss. The subordinate wants his superior to be consistent. The need for security in the work setting reflects in the employee’s need for role clarity or the need to know about his tasks and procedures. Social needs involve the desire to maintain social relationships and involve acts instrumental to satisfaction of these. The need for nurturance, the need for succourance, seeking and granting approval, communicating (proper communication of work-related and personal issues by superiors to subordinates helps building up subordinates’ trust towards superiors), desire to subordinate individual interest to group interest, and so on are the reflections of the social needs. Ego needs include desires to dominate, to be powerful, to look respectful in the eyes of others (status), to control others, to keep others under surveillance, and so on. The need for power has been found to be negatively related to social need or the need for maintaining group relations26. The subordinate’s expectation that his superior allows him substantial freedom for action is a reflection of his need for power or the need to control the work situation by himself the work situation. There are studies showing that the needs for status and power do not contribute to task achievement. For instance, Menon27 found that high achievement-oriented supervisors in their task pursuits do not aspire for much freedom vis-à-vis satisfaction of their need for autonomy; they on the other hand, expect their superiors to provide them with support, involve them in organizational matters, share responsibility and power with them, and encourage their initiative. The need for self-actualization is referred to as the need for achievement28. Achievement need express itself in the desire to do a job well, using once knowledge and skills to be rewarded for accomplishment, to be recognized for good performance through feedback,29 to be able to control one’s situation for accomplishment of a task at hand through participation rather than through freedom per se, to be responsible for the job well done, to undertake work which is challenging and which involves moderate degree of risk or taking risk in relatively structured and predictive situations.30

Work Motivation
Labour efficiency is optimum when the labour costs per unit of production is lowest. Employees should put in their best effort as well as they should utilize their full time if labour cost per unit is to be kept lowest. The labour cost in the production cost per unit will increase if the employees work below the level of their optimum efficiency, or when they absent or fall sick. Although the employees do not have control over certain conditions such as falling sick which is due to factors outside their work life, they have control over their efficiency. Many of the studies such as reported by Roethlisberger and Dickson,31 and Whyte32 have shown that employees restrict their output voluntarily. Such voluntary restriction of output under wage incentive situations has also been found operating in the Indian business conditions.33 Apart from conscious restriction of efficiency, the employees withdraw their production effort through such mechanisms as absenting from work34 and involving in accidents35. Studies of job attitudes36 and motivation37 have brought out two main trends in the area of work motivation, viz., (i) Motivation versus Maintenance approach (also called Intrinsic Motivation versus Extrinsic Motivation), and (ii) Interaction of Multiple Need Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction.
Motivation versus Maintenance View
According to the motivation view, the individual put in their best and willing effort only when certain higher-order (task-related) needs as creative opportunity and challenge, and needs adjunct to these like responsibility and control over the task situation, are fulfilled. The permissible levels of output or work standard set in a work organization through techniques such as work study and collective bargaining are a step below the level which the employees can voluntarily make if they work assiduously and constructively. The sudden spurt in production when the employees respond to wage incentives illustrates the extra capacity of the employees. On the other hand, the employees meet the average levels according to maintenance view when the organizational conditions related to lower-order needs such as high wages, more fringe benefits, attractive and comfortable working conditions are met with. Failure to provide conditions related to lower-order needs makes the employees inefficient at work, through voluntary absenteeism, sickness and accidents, conflicts and rivalry, strikes and so on. Maintenance factors should be present before the motivational factors can operate. The need for the co-existence of conditions satisfying lower-order needs and those satisfying higher-order needs is shown in Menon’s study.38 He found that the high achievement-oriented supervisors are less efficient and lack satisfaction due to lack of chance for using their skill, for having learning experience, when their superiors do not lend support and do not encourage their initiative by means of their leadership style.
Interaction Of Multiple Need Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
According to this approach, employees’ drive to work is determined by the net outcome of satisfactions and dissatisfactions of multiple needs at different hierarchical levels. The employees strive towards the achievement of organizational goals if (i) the needs satisfied predominate over those dissatisfied, and (ii) if the satisfaction follows the hierarchical order in ascending fashion.
The second condition means that it is not appropriate to bring into play the needs at the higher levels before sufficient opportunity is given for the satisfaction of need systems at the lower levels. An example of this condition may be cited. The individual employees should not be put in competition such as in a piece rate wage incentive system when the group is heterogeneous in ability and when there is strong unionism; otherwise it will lead to interpersonal conflict and rivalry leading to restriction of production.
Organizational Climate Factors and Opportunities for Need Satisfaction and Need Dissatisfaction
Organizational climate characteristics provide opportunity for the satisfaction of certain needs, while they restrict the chance for the satisfaction of others. At the present stage of knowledge, the exact relationship is not known. However, there are studies which provide direct or indirect support to the relationships discussed here relating to one or more factors. A pattern of relationships has been conceived and presented in Exhibit 1. Although the proposed relationships call for statistical testing, their discussion should be helpful in understanding human behaviour. Exhibit 1 brings out the following findings. High structuring provides opportunity for the satisfaction security need and curtails the satisfaction of the needs for status and power, and the need for achievement. Low structuring (reflecting role ambiguity) provides opportunity for the dissatisfaction of the need for security, social need, the need for status and power, and the need for achievement. Moderate structuring provides opportunity for the satisfaction of the need for security and the need for social relationships. Compromising approach provides opportunity for the satisfaction of the need for status and power whereas the unilateral approach deprives the need for status and power.
Exhibit 1. Relationship between climate factors and satisfaction-dissatisfaction of employee need systems

Climate factors Physi-ological Safety & Security Social Status & Power Achie-vement
1a High Structuring N S N D D
1b Low Structuring N D D D D
1c Moderate Structuring N S S N N
2a Compromising N N N S N
2b Unilateral N N N D N
3a Warmth and Support N S S N N
3b Lack of Warmth and Support N D D N N
4a Expert Persuasion N N N S S
4b Coercion N D D D N
5a Co-operation N S S N N
5b Competitiveness in Group Situation N D D S N
6a Problem Solving Approach to Authority N N N S S
6b Status Approach to Authority N D D S N
7a Employee-Task Fit N N N S S
7b Lack of Employee-Task Fit N D N N N
8a Performance Based Reward N N N S S
8b Expediency Based Reward N D D D N
9a Setting High Performance Goals N N N S S
9b Setting Low Performance Goals N S S N N
10a High Risk Taking N D N S N
10b Complacency N S N N N
10c Moderate Risk Taking N S N S S
11a Decentralization N D D S S
11b Centralization N D D D N

S stands for “the opportunity provided for the satisfaction of the need”
D stands for “the situation leading to dissatisfaction or deprivation of the need”.
N stands for “need satisfaction unaffected”.

Providing warmth and support allows the employees to satisfy their need for security and the need for social relationships. Lack of warmth and support deprives them of opportunity to satisfy their need for security and the need for social relationships. Expert persuasion provides room for the satisfaction of the need for status and power, and the need for achievement. The coercive approach restricts chance for the satisfaction of the need for security, the need for social relationships, and the need for status and power. Cooperation provides opportunity to satisfy the need for security and the need for social relationships. Competitiveness in a group situation, on the other hand, restricts the chance for the satisfaction of the need for security and the need for social relationships. It, however, provides opportunity for the satisfaction of the need for status and power. Problem-solving approach to authority offers chance for the satisfaction of the need for status and power, and the need for achievement. On the other hand, status approach to authority while offering chance for the satisfaction of the need for status and power, curtails the need for security, and the need for social relationships.
Employee-task fit creates situations helpful for the satisfaction of the need for status and power, and the need for achievement. Lack of employee-task fit thwarts the employees’ need for security. Performance-based reward creates conditions for the satisfaction of the need for status and power, and the need for achievement. Expediency-based reward creates conditions detrimental to the satisfaction of the need for security, the need for social relationships, and the need for status and power. Setting up high-performance goals creates conditions for the realization of the need for status and power, and the need for achievement. Setting up low performance goals contributes to the satisfaction of the need for security and the need for social relationships. Encouraging high risks thwarts the need for security, although it invokes the employee need for status and power. Encouraging complacency on the contrary, contributes only to the satisfaction of security needs. When the employee is encouraged to take moderate risk it contributes to the satisfaction of the need for security, the need for status and power, and the need for achievement. Decentralization opens up chances for the satisfaction of the need for status and power and the need for achievement, while centralization thwarts the needs for security, social relationships status and power, and achievement.

Organizational Typologies and Work Motivation
At least five kinds of organizations can be distinguished in terms of the technological practices as well as the eleven organizational climate factors discussed earlier. They are :
1. Technologically Backward and Punitive
2. Technologically Progressive and Punitive
3. Technologically Backward and Maintenance-oriented
4. Technologically Progressive and Maintenance-oriented
5. Developmental

Technologically backward and Punitive, and Technologically Progressive and Punitive
In technologically backward and punitive organizations, the top management hardly introduces technological improvements and innovations. They are insensitive to the requirements of the changing market conditions. They tolerate profitability at a level lower than the maximum possible under efficient conditions. Such organizations are low on structure, unilateral, low on providing warmth and support, and enforce compliance. They encourage competition in the group through individual wage incentives, favouritism, etc. The members in such organizations, view authority as a source of status. The organization never makes conscious attempts to fit the employees to the jobs through proper selection procedure. The members do not perceive any relation between their work and the credit they get. The organization rewards its employees as a matter of expediency. If it finds that it can capitalize on certain abilities of an individual to serve its short-term goals, it puts him ahead of other employees who are generally assets to the organization. In other words, the Personnel Policy decisions are determined by the situational contingencies. The organization might set too high production goals to the individuals without creating the pre-conditions. It might encourage its employees to take high risks and once in a way reward such behaviour too. The authority and power for making all the decisions and even for administrative action is invested in the hands of the top few.
Technologically progressive and punitive organizations may create all the above conditions of organizational climate, except that it constantly watches for opportunities of technological improvements. It adopts a kind of Taylorian philosophy in the management of business.

Technologically Backward and Maintenance-Oriented versus Technologically Progressive and Maintenance-Oriented
In “technologically backward and maintenance-oriented” organizations, top managements are not competitive in running business. Technological changes are hardly introduced as a way to increase productivity of the plant. Rigidity in production planning is usually present, but not product innovation. Corresponding to the above technological practices, such organizations may be low on structuring, unilateral, enforce compliance, encourage competition, and relatively high on status approach to authority. It may hardly place the employees according to merit and establish link between effort and reward. Goals within easy reach of the individual are set. No particular incentive is provided for taking risk. Only persons at the top are involved in decision-making. The superiors are encouraged to provide warmth and support to their subordinates. The members are given economic security.
In the case of “technologically progressive and maintenance-oriented” organizations, the top management tries to innovate plants technologically as a way to productivity, while at the same time maintains a happy and contented work force by providing a welfare-oriented climate. It introduces the organizational climate conditions of maintenance discussed in the preceding paragraph. Top managements in such organizations believe in achieving production through mechanization. They also perceive that the employees are inevitable aids to production at a particular stage of technological development and so the need to keep them happy.
Developmental Organizations
Developmental organizations are aware of the potentialities of technology and their obligation for creating employment. Their decisions reflect not only economic considerations but also their socio-economic concerns. Such organizations develop managers who are not only masters of technology but those who have ability to make economic decisions in a particular socio-cultural context. They adapt technological innovations to the management of human organizations. Such organizations are technologically more innovative. Parallel to the technical system, they create the following conditions of organizational climate conducive for optimizing employee work motivation. The top management structures the tasks moderately and develops clarity of rules. It is compromising and flexible, and weighs the merit of the situation in making decisions. The employees are mutually helpful and supportive. They attempt to influence others by making them see the merits of the case rather than by coercion.
Such organizations prefer to encourage co-operative behaviour rather than making employees individually competitive. They do not make employees individually competitive especially if the situation is such that the social equity is thwarted. They adopt the problem-solving approach more often. Attempts are made to match the employees and their job requirements and reward them according to their efforts. They may use scientific selection procedures and techniques such as Job Analysis, Job Evaluation, Objective Performance Appraisal, and so on. They set high performance goals and encourage the employees to take good risks. The employees at all levels of the hierarchy share authority, power, and responsibility matched with their respective roles. Employees develop orientation towards the overall goals of the organization and towards coordination of functions.
Indian Industrial and Business Organizations
In the previous section, it was pointed out that the industrial organizations can be classified under one of the five types. In this section, let us attempt classification of Indian industrial organizations. Indian industrial organizations are too large and heterogeneous a universe that makes generalization difficult. However, as a first step in the direction, Indian industrial organizations may be classified into four types, viz., (i) small, privately-owned Indian family concerns, (ii) large companies having private Indian ownership, (iii) companies owned by state (the so-called public sector), and (iv) Indian Private enterprises having foreign collaboration
Small Privately-Owned Indian Companies
These companies may be said to reflect the features of “technologically backward and punitive” type of organizations. Certain conditions of organizational culture and climate as revealed in studies of these organizations may be discussed.

Organizational Climate
Most of these organizations have no organizational charts indicating the roles and the role relationships. They hardly induct the employees. The employees hardly know their duties, authority, accountability, and responsibility at the time of joining the organization. Their superiors and colleagues usually serve as sources of such information. Ambiguity in responsibility leads to conflict in organizational communication. For instance, it has been found that the bypassing of the lines of command is common. The chief executive will entrust the responsibility to the General Manager for the duties of Departmental Heads and at the same time allow the Departmental Heads to bypass the General Manager and report to him undermining the authority of the General Manager. There is hardly any job structuring. This creates a situation in which the job designations rarely reflect the duties, salary and authority (financial and personnel discretionary powers). Such ambiguity leads to lack of coordination. Lack of coordination is reflected in a situation in which one subordinate reports to two or more superiors in the line of command. Lack of coordination of roles also leads to interpersonal conflict and employee strains. There are hardly attempts to select and place the employees according to their merit. The Top Executive who is invariably an owner-manager is too possessive of his organization. He has no trust in his subordinates. This develops into a situation in which the people at different levels lack mutual trust. The Top Executive reserves to himself the authority in decision-making. He develops a trusted group of people in vital management functions. These people are related to the chief executive through family ties, social origin, etc. Trustworthiness and loyalty are emphasized as qualities required rather than merit. Top management selects persons for new jobs based on such ascriptive criteria as belonging to the community or caste to which the chief executive belongs. The organization is hardly interested in training and developing employees. It does not institute any systematic personnel appraisal programmes. Thus, a condition is created in which the employees do not perceive clearly the relationship between their efforts and the financial rewards administered by the organization. In controlling the employees, the organization uses coercive approach. The employees are criticized or punished for their faults. Competitive rather than cooperative approach is employed. The organization does not train the employees, with the result that wide variations in abilities among the employees exist. Yet it uses individual wage incentive. Punitive methods are used in dealing with the disciplinary problems emerging from the individual incentive situation. The organization does not set high goals of performance and output and is satisfied with the levels of output which are often below the optimum. The organization adopts a unilateral approach in the sense that it does not admit of any confrontations, with the result that it does not recognize and deal with unions.
Large Companies Having Private Indian Ownership
These companies are offshoots of the small privately-owned organizations. They thus show many of the climatic and cultural conditions witnessed in small organizations. They can be referred to as “Technologically Progressive and Maintenance-Oriented”. They are technologically more progressive than small organizations. They are low on structure in the sense that roles and role relationships lack clarity and line of command is violated by bypassing the positions. Rewards are not tied up with efforts and no scientific appraisal is followed. The employees are mot encouraged to take good risks. At times they are encouraged to take risks without providing the necessary support. Employee skills and abilities are not utilized properly. However, these large organizations are more favourably predisposed to hiring trained professionals. They employ specialists such as industrial engineers, marketing economists, personnel researchers and so on, although all of them are only in the advisory capacity. The authority for making decisions on policy matters and to a large extent on administrative matters rests with the top few individuals. There is one-way communication downward. Submission to and dependence upon authority is encouraged at all levels.
These large organizations differ from the small organizations in terms of (i) welfare orientation, and (ii) relative flexibility. They provide better wages, fringe benefits, social security measures and more security of jobs compared to small organizations. These organizations in fact provide much opportunity outside the work for the expression of certain higher-order needs of the employees such as the need for creative expression, need for responsibility, need for power, etc. The opportunities for the satisfaction of these needs within the plants are not encouraged.
These large organizations are more compromising in the sense that they permit opposing forces to co-exist. They do not view union growth and movement as a necessary evil. They deal with the problems of employment through unions, perhaps without bothering much about the canons of the bargaining process. They however attempt to live in peace with the unions.
The Indian Private companies having foreign collaboration retail most of the characteristic described above. Plum salaries and excellent employee well fare facilities are provided which are often much above those provided by large Indian companies are provided. More mechanization and computerization are introduced. Though some attempts are maid to introduce progressive and best HRM practices, not much success is achieved. The traditional Indian socio-cultural ethos seem to have strong hold with very little penetration of Global and universalistic work culture and technological practices.

State-Owned Companies (Public Enterprises)
Public Enterprises can be referred to as “Technologically Progressive and Maintenance-Oriented” organizations. The organizational culture and behaviour are comparable to those of large private-owned organizations in many respects. The roles are too structured. There is clarity in duties, reporting relationships, and authority and responsibility in the vertical structure of the organization (because of the emphasis on rules and procedures). This high structure provides emotional security to the employees. Due to rigidity in the structure, there is no horizontal coordination. Each channel in the hierarchical structure is relatively independent of other. As such, the employees in each function do not see their contribution to an overall goal. Rigidity in structure also restricts individual freedom. Adherence to procedures is emphasized as an end in itself. Employees are not selected to meet the requirements of the jobs. Often those making selections hardly know what a particular job requires in terms of human skills.39 This has its negative effects on employee appraisal. Skills and progress are not evaluated objectively. The rewards are not administered according to performance. Rewards such as promotions are given to employees based on criteria such as seniority, conformity to rules, conduct, etc. In all such reward procedures, the link between employee effort and reward is missing. The employees are not encouraged to take risks. Lack of employee freedom, absence of functional coordination, and the reward structure induce employee complacency. Correspondingly, the organization does not set up high performance goals. Public sector organizations are progressive technologically. They make heavy investments and use employee specialists. They are more progressive than other types of Indian industries in using specialists. They institute research and development programmes. They, however, do not involve these specialists in the mainstream of organizational activities. In employee control, the approach used differs from that prevalent in privately-owned organizations. In public enterprises, the superiors hardly use coercive approach. The approach used is one of status approach. The hierarchical levels reflect different levels of status. The subordinates submit to the superiors by virtue of their positional status. Thus, conformity is inbuilt in the structure, and the conformity pattern is predictable. The organization provides economic security and provides welfare and social insurance benefits. As the scope for interpersonal interaction is limited under Rule-orientation, the employees hardly derive any social satisfaction in their formal role relationships. However, as the organization does not restrict the cohesiveness of the group through Personnel And Technological Practices, an informal organization of employees develops for social satisfaction. Lack of ownership motivation at almost all the levels and lack of involvement in organizational decision-making encourage the development of groups and associations including members at higher levels.

Summary
Brief reviews given about Indian Business and Industry clearly show to change all of them into a Developmental type of Organization, a typology developed by the author. This typology can be used for bringing about the desired changes in the Indian Organizations for all round benefits.

References
1.D.Katz, N.Maccoby, G.Gurin and L.C.Floor, Productivity, Supervision and Morale Among Railroad Workers, Ann Arbor, Institute for Social Science Research, 1951; and A.Chatterjee, “Satisfaction and Productivity : A Study of Morale and Teamwork in Industry with Respect to Productivity”, unpublished doctoral thesis, Bangalore, Indian Institute of Science, 1961.
2.H.Baumgartel, “The Penetration of Modern Management Technology and Organizational Practices in Indian Business Organizations”, Indian Administrative and Management Review, 1971, 3,2.
3. Ibid
4. H.Baumgartel, op. cit.; and K.Chowdhry and A.K.Pal, “Production Planning and Organizational Morale : A Case from India”, Human Organizations, 1957, 15, 4, 11-16.
5.Baumgartel, op. cit.
6.K.S.Basu, “Management Gap in Indian Industry”, Commerce, Annual Number, 1968, 117, 40-42.
7. See, for example, G.H.Litwin and R.A.Stringer, Motivation and Organizational Climate, Harvard University, Division of Research, Graduate School of Business Administration, 1968.
8. I.Dayal, “Management”, Seminar, Annual 149, January 1972, 64-69.
9. R.L.Kahn, R.P.Wolf, T.P.Quinn, J.P.Snoek and R.A.Rosenthal, Organizational Stress; Studies in Role Conflict, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1967.
10. A.Sreekumar Menon, “Performance Effects”, New Delhi, Shri Ram Centre for Industrial Relations and Human Resources, 1971, unpublished manuscript.
11. S.K.Roy, Corporate Image in India, new Delhi, Shri Ram Centre for Industrial Relations and Human Resources, 1974.
12. J.Singh, “Management Practices in India Today : A Critique”, Indian Management, 1970, 9, 9, 3-9.
13. W.F.White, Money and Motivation : An Analysis of Incentives in Industry, New York, Harper, 1955; V.H.Vroom, Work and Motivation, New York, John Wiley, 1964; and A.W.Kornhauser, Mental health of the Industrial Worker : A Detroit Study, New York, John Wiley, 1965.
14. A.Sreekumar Menon, 1971, op. cit.
15. Ibid.
16. R.Likert, Human Organization : Its Management and Value, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1967.
17. I.Dayal, “Management”, op. cit.
18. J.Singh, op. cit.
19. L.W.Porter nd E.E.Lawler, III Managerial Attitudes and Performance, New York, Irwin Dorsey, 1968.
20. V.H.Vroom, Some Personality Determinants of the Effects of Participation, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 1960.
21. P.Chattopadhay, “Managerial Revolution in India”, Indian Manager, July 1969, 8
22. V.K.Pathak, “Wage Incentive, Productive Efforts and Perception Change”, Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 1969, 4, 4.
23. R.Likert, op.cit.
24. A.Sreekumar Menon, “Effectiveness of Wage Incentives: Analysis of Behavioural Processes”, in G.K.Suri (ed.), Wage Incentives: Theory and Practice, New Delhi, Shri Ram Centre for Industrial Relations and human Resources, 1973.
25. A.H.Maslow, Motivation and Personality, New York, Harper and Row, 1954.
26. G.h.Litwin and r.a. Striner, op.cit.
27. A.Sreekumar Menon, 1971, op. cit.
28. F.Herberg, B,Mausner and B.B.Snyderman, The Motivation to work, New York, John Wiley, Second Edn. 1966; D.C. Mc-Clelland and S.K.Winter, Motivating Economic Achievement, New York, Collier-MacMillan, 1971; and G.H.Litwin and R.A.Stringer, op.cit.
29. E.E.Lawler, Pay and Organizational Effectiveness. New York, McGRaw-Hill, 1971.
30. J.W.Atkinson, “Motivational Determinants of Risk-Taking Behavior”, in J.W.Atkinson and N.T.Feather (eds.), A Theory of Achievement Motivation, New York, John Wiley, 1966.
31. F.J.Roethlisberger and W.J.Dickson, Management and the Worker, Masschusetts, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1964.
32. W.F.Whyte, op. cit.
33. G.K.Suri, “Continuing Effectiveness of an Incentive Application; A Quantitative Evaluation”, New Delhi, Shri Ram Centre for Industrial Relations and Human Resources, 1972, mimeo.
34. A.Sreekumar Menon and H.Hanumanthiah, “Productive Drive and Absenteeism”, Business Herald, April, 1969, 4, 10-12.
35. A.Sreekumar Menon, “Interpersonal Relations and Industrial Safety”, Kerala Productivity Journal, October-December, 1969, 4, 4.
36. F.Herzberg et al., op. cit.
37. L.W.Porter and E.E.Lawler, op. cit.; and v.h.vroom, op. cit.
38. A Sreekumar Menon, 1971, op. cit.
39. K.Chowdhry, Change-in Organizations, Bombay, Lalvani Publishing House, 1970.

Human Resource Development-State Administrative Training Some Key Issues

2006-06-24T03:17:00.000-07:00

The role of today’s public administration personnel in our country is no longer confined to the old administration concerned with collection of revenue and maintenance of law and order existed in pre-independent India. After independence, we have moved from this type of passive administration to more dynamic and people-centred administration, even to Development Administration, charged with the responsibility of promoting socio-economic development of the people, by playing different roles such as provider, motivator, catalyst or facilitator, custodian, co-ordinator, developer, counselor, expert and so on.

After independence, our country has witnessed tremendous planned change in economic, social and political life of the people, although much is to be achieved in eradicating evils of poverty, disease and illiteracy. The waves of modern science and technology and their application, our national policy of promoting economic growth with equitable distribution and promotion of democratic values such as freedom of expression and people’s participation in development activities have created complex socio-economic and political systems.

Correspondingly, the Public Administrators of today face a more complex, challenging and dynamic administrative environments having economic, social, political, legal, technological, psychological and cultural interfaces, which their predecessors would not have even dreamt off. Thus, they have to share much heavier responsibilities in improving the conditions of majority of our people, who live below the poverty line.

Administrators of today cannot rest contented with laurels of their rank, status and authority and cannot expect to earn respect from the people by virtue of these. They should on the other hand, work through people and mobilize their strength and personal resources for the people and common good.

They should display such personal qualities as dynamism as opposed to bureaucratic apathy; efficiency consciousness, goal orientation as opposed to rigid activity orientation, result- orientation rather than orientation towards using rules to impede action; flexibility, time sense, innovativeness rather than being routine; planning rather than being ad-hoc, being accountable for results; moderate risk-taking as opposed to following the path of least resistance; integrity or tendency to follow certain norms and act in good faith and welfare-orientation or the love to work for the well-being of the masses, particularly those who are under-privileged.

The stability of the popularly elected Government stands on the pillars of efficiency of public administration system. That is the reason why a newly elected Government shows eagerness to provide a clean and efficient administrative system. Cheenuru Anjaneya Reddy in his interesting article states that in a plural political culture with political authority shifting between contending groups, the importance of a neutral professional civil service was forseen by the country’s first statesmen and two premier All India Services-I.A.S. and I.P.S.-were organized immediately after independence. Their place was later secured in the constitution, which also provided for the creation of more such services.

The civil service is expected to tender impartial advice in the context of declared policy of the political party in power, but keeping public interest always at heart. After a decision is made by the political executive, the civil service is required to put it into practice without subjecting to its own prejudices, as long as it does not contravene the basic law of the land or offend the public interest”.

Training of Civil Servants
Public Administration is not an abstract entity. It is the collective action of the public personnel or the so called civil servants and thus, its quality can be augmented by imparting systematic education, training and development of its personnel and to make them capable and responsible officers.

This necessitates to plan different phases of training such as defining clearly the goals/objectives, the outcomes expected to accrue from training, designing course contents, choosing appropriate pedagogical methods, selection of faculty, arranging infra-structural facilities and attending to other logistics, preparing background Reading materials or Hand-outs and evaluating training effectiveness during and after training, including follow up of the trainee performance on the job. An annual conference of Trainers in Public Administration held in Delhi brought out several expected outcomes from administrative training. The following are some of the most important objectives identified.
1. Training must create in participants a liking or interest in work. Only when one has interest in work, one would do his work better. The zest for work should be created.

Training should keep away civil servants from cynicism, bureaucratic apathy and a tendency to maintain status-quo and follow path of least resistance. It should enable the trainees to develop right work ethics and culture. Work ethics is not mercenary and work culture is not treating the work casually and taking things easy, on the other hand, it is taking work seriously and with sustaining interest

2. Apart from equipping trainees to do regular routine work in the field, training should develop and encourage them to develop in themselves and others problem solving-orientation and innovative capacity. The public personnel should develop and encourage their subordinates to develop an inquiring mind, receptivity to new ideas, openness to change and a restless spirit which constantly urge them to find ways of doing their tasks better and more efficiently (zest for the pursuit of excellence)

They should discover and correct defects, not to ignore or avoid them and not to be defensive. They should learn how to give and receive feedback for improving performance. They should show willingness and encourage others, in trying out (or experimenting with) new ideas and to learn from past successes and failures and perhaps, the most important is the recognition of common stake of the entire community in better administration.
3. Should bring out attitudes of precision and exactness in work.
4. Should enable the participants to develop in themselves and others planning orientation instead of conforming to other’s plan; self direction, minimizing dependence on others; shift from discipline-orientation to life experience-orientation, from narrow activity-orientation to view overall success of the project or functions at the group/department levels and a sense of interdependence, highest standards of integrity-intellectual, moral and financial and a attitude of service, sensitivity and concern for the public (understanding beneficiaries, perception of administrative needs) etc., instead of regulation and control.
5. Appreciation of the value of time dimension in work and keeping time spent on tasks under control (proper management of time). Time is money. It needs to be saved and efficiently utilized. Delays not only add to the cost of execution of any work, but, they also have snowballing effect on the work of others, with the result that delays at one place produce a chain reaction, and ill-effects are multiplied many times over. Understanding the beneficiaries’ perception of administrative needs and action with social sensitivity demands objectivity, responsiveness and time-bound performance.
6. Improving competence through imparting knowledge, management and other specialized skills.
7. Developing appropriate leadership styles and behaviours among the trainees to work as superiors, subordinates and colleagues (peers).
The leadership behaviour to be displayed by the superiors are :
1. Increased willingness to develop subordinates
2. Allowing their participation in work management.
3. Motivating subordinates for (a) self learning, taking initiative and assuming responsibility for work (including planning work, setting performance targets and review), rather than passively carrying out orders from above coupled with close supervision, (b) turning out quality work, (c) Collaborating as members of teams.
4. Encouraging and appreciating merit.
5. Showing integrity and fairness in personnel and public dealings.
6. Developing positive self-image towards the organization and the public.
From the above discussions, it is clear that in addition to imparting knowledge regarding system of work, rules and procedures and techniques of project management, the development of several behavioural skills has been emphasized by all training experts unanimously.
Training Objectives
Keeping the above training outcomes in view, the following objectives may be set for courses in State Administrative Training :
1. To develop in participants the skill in the art of public administration by exposing them to the basic principles and practices and latest theoretical developments in the field of administrative sciences and allied areas.
2. To help them appreciate the various roles of an administrator functioning in a democratic set up such as, the information role, planner and decision making role, entrepreneurial role, human relations role, catalyst’s role etc., both within the administrative organization, where one works and with the public interface.
3. To give the trainees who are undergoing in-service training an opportunity to share the experiences of eminent administrators and share the experiences among themselves to enable them to reflect on their achievements and weakness and to promote self-discovery and learning in a relaxed and supportive (or non-threatening) inter-personal environment. Such an opportunity for spontaneous and relaxed reflection is not available, while people are at work due to hierarchical and other job pressures and bureaucratic controls.
4. To provide information and knowledge relevant to the implementation of projects in a particular economic or social sector, regarding administrative responsibilities associated with different positions, rules and regulations, official procedures, personnel policies and practices, employee welfare, public administration set-up and functions at different levels in the State etc.
5. To familiarize the participants with the socio-cultural environments of the state and the country as a whole and the administrative systems and functions at the secretarial and field levels.
6. To develop behavioural skills in such administrative processes as :
- planning (action goal –orientation)
- effective, decision making (participative decision making or decision making by consensus and use of data and information and Computerised management of information,
- management of motivation in initiating, directing, monitoring, and reviewing work with the help of appropriate leadership skills.
- Managing team work (process of collaboration, the skills to work through people as boss, subordinate and colleagues and ability to work together)
- Facilitating creative group problem-solving or encouraging innovative behaviors and capacities at subordinate levels
- Organizational and inter-personal communication; dealing with people effectively and gaining their support or also called Extension Motivation or Public Relations Skills
- Ethical – moral dimension of human behaviour as related to administration.

Knowledge and Understanding should be developed in trainees in new fields as History, Culture, Language, Socio-Economic, Political and Geographical conditions (agro – climate, forests, minerals and other natural resources), growth of industries, special development schemes, organization and functioning of planning machinery, constitutional and legislative frame work, state Administrative functions at different levels etc. both within the frame work of the state and the country.
Training Methodology
The instructions on these aspects covered under the objectives I to 5 may be largely imparted by using the technique of ‘concept learning’ or through ‘lecture methods’. The oral presentations should be supplemented by the use of audio-visual presentations (in the form of slides, charts, movie projections, writing on the black board etc) to derive added effects of learning. Learning by seeing is three times more effective than learning by hearing and that is the very reason for supplementing lectures with the use of audio-visual aids.
To facilitate the development of behavioural skills that contribute to administrative efficiency ‘Lecture-cum-experiential’ or group-teaching-learning techniques may be used. Various experiential techniques that can be used, along with the lecture methods to reinforce learning are Case studies, practical exercises, inventories, seminars, Book Reviews and so on. Some of the behavioural skills that can be developed through experiential methods are :
- ability to think innovatively and to do penetrating analysis of the problems,
- development of a goal or sense of purpose, and working towards the goal (or planning-orientaion),
- ability to participate in group discussions,
- self-responsibility for seeking information and knowledge and for learning,
- openness :- mutual trust and support,
- ability for reading comprehension,
- ability to give feed-back without being offensive and receive it without being defensive and ability for self-correction and growth.
- Ability to resolve inter-personnel and inter-group conflicts
- Ability to perceive unfamiliar situations and respond to them promptly and appropriately,
- Ability to take initiative and mop up personal drive and enthusiasm,
- Ability to work as members of a team (team spirit),

These experiential techniques stimulate trainees’ interest and participation in learning, promote acceptance of ideas and tendency for their application in real life situations. They also convince the trainees about the value of team work.
These techniques which are helpful in developing certain behavioural skills should be used only by trainers who are well trained in Behavoural sciences. Again these tools should not be selected indiscriminately. A judicious combination of conceptual learning techniques and Experiential learning techniques should be selected depending upon the training situation.
Lecture Method
The conventional lecture methods is considered as ineffective from the point of view of trainee receptivity, because it is very formal, and impersonal. It keeps the trainee as passive spectators rather than making them active participants. However, the lecture methods has certain advantages over others. It makes possible organized and systematic presentation of materials, which helps systematic learning and provides the trainees with a strong theoretical base, which is essential for them to attempt improved behaviour as a result of training. The weakness of the conventional types of lecture sessions (such a lack of trainee motivation and interest in learning) can be minimized by adopting some of the following strategies.
The speaker should use clear and precise language which he trainees can comprehend, and avoid being verbose and using jargons. Language is the vehicle of thought and it is not to be used for ornamental or cosmetic purposes.
He should introduce the topic indicating its general importance and the value of learning to argument the trainee competence, build up the self-esteem of the trainees and morale of the group, by acknowledging their special strengths and capabilities, merits and the confidence that is transposed in them and the correspondingly higher expectations from them in terms of performance. This initial step helps to lay down the foundation of trainee interest and motivation upon which superstructure of continuing motivation, listening with understanding, acceptance and retention and the desire for possible application of learning, should be built up throughout the lecture sessions.
The speaker should prepare the topics thoroughly, develop and present an outline of the talk before the development of individual points. The trainees receive an overall idea of the scope of presentation which in turn develops a sense of purpose or direction and interest in learning.
After the introduction, he should pick up each point and develop it logically and summarise the discussions on each point before moving to the next, thus linking it with the overall framework. The development and analysis of the different points constitute the body of the lecture.
The lecture should conclude with an over all summary of the main points dealt with in the lecture.
Interesting and familiar narrations and anecdotes and practical examples should be provided while developing ideas. Sometimes, the narrations, anecdotes and examples are cited first immediately followed by discussions of the underlying theoretical principles. This approach is called ‘flash back’ approach and it is often very effective. The only caution to be exercised is that the narrations should not consume too much of the speaker’s time, lest the participants lose track of the main purpose of the lecture.
The speaker should keep a free and relaxed classroom atmosphere in which all the trainees feel free to interact and ask questions. No trainee should have the fear of losing his face or looking naïve if he commits mistakes. He should appreciate comments from the floor, if they deserve. The trainer should not cut short or ridicule (deflate ego of) any trainee even if he makes silliest of the silly remarks. On the other hand while he is guided to learn, he should be accepted with understanding and sympathy. All the trainees should be encouraged to practice such behaviours towards each other and to build up on each other’s strengths. No room for the trainees to belittle their colleagues, unwittingly or otherwise, should be given, by setting a positive tone by the speaker.
The Trainer should encourage the trainees to speak and give feed back. He can ask the trainees some questions and seek some information related to the points under discussion or can ask them to summarise a part of his presentation. In either case, the trainees are motivated to follow the lecture closely.
The speaker should also appreciate the trainees if they are able to reproduce faithfully what the trainer has said. The ability of the trainees to echo what the speaker said shows that they are attentive, serious in learning and not immersed in their personal thoughts and fantasies. When the speaker rewards the trainees on giving correct feed back, through public acknowledgement, it motivates and reinforces the trainee learning.
The speaker should try to build up his ideas on the ideas thrown up by the trainees or atleast relate his ideas with those expressed by them, so that, the trainees are able to integrate the new knowledge with their background information and to be motivated and purposeful in their learning. Thus, learning of ideas does not appear to be an isolated process. On the other hand, they fit into a definite pattern (Gestalt).
The lecture delivery should be appealing not only to the ‘head’ but also to the ‘heart’ of the trainees. The level at which a subject is treated and the logical organization of ideas contribute to the intellectual satisfaction, the trainees derive from the lectures and to the development of their capacities and skills. A lecture may be ‘superb’ from the academic point of view, but it may fall flat in regard to trainees’ reception, unless it is also emotionally appealing. Balancing between ‘Intellectual’ and ‘emotional’ acceptability is a tough act for most trainers. More often trainers resolve this dilemma by being n either extremes, either presenting the picture of a person with academic bulldozer’) or of a person playing in the hands of trainees, catering to their lighter moods, sacrificing the academic sanctity of the subject and throwing one’s professionalism overboard. Both the extremes are far from being desirable.
The lecture can be made ‘spicy’ and entertaining to the trainees by sprinkling wit and humor on appropriate occasions in the course of the talk. When the audience reach the peak of heir mental effort through their acts of concentration and assimilation, the resultant muscular and mental tension that gets built up should be relieved, if they are to be kept alert during subsequent spells. Humour and wit should not be used either to entertain the trainees who in spite of all other attempts lack minimum motivation as a learner or to win the acceptance of disinterested band of trainees. A trainer who does this is said to be giving a ‘sales talk’. Any trainer who indulges in this game is guilty of throwing his professionalism over board.
Training Environment
There are many aspects, which the Training Administrators should be concerned with for the successful achievement of the objectives of administrative training. Among the factors, the aspect of ‘initial trainee motivation and receptivity’, which being one of the elusive aspects of training, may often escape the attention of Training Managers, while being preoccupied with other phases such as, identification of training needs, designing course contents, faculty selection, choice of methodology, physical arrangements and other logistics, evaluation of training by trainees and looking after the comforts of the trainees. Trainee receptivity is often left to the skillful manipulation of the training faculty. This in turn tends to be the main obsessions of atleast some of the training faculty who are wordly wise and try to impress upon the trainees, through ways other than those which contribute to learning such as keeping the audience in good humour, delivering a spicy lecture without much meat and other unprofessional ways.
Trainee receptivity relates to the intentions with which the trainees attend the training or their initial interest and motivation. On the criteria of initial interest and motivation, the trainees may be classified into 3 proto-types. Some of the trainees may consider training period as an unpleasant phase they have to pass through before occupying the chair of power and position, a necessary evil, so to say put up with. These people belong to the first category of ‘Fatalists’. Others may view training as a period of relaxation, recreation and recuperation, after passing through the ordeals of academic life and preparations for examinations of cut-throat competition which almost puts any one in an inescapable rat race. These people belong to the second category of ‘Tired Travelers’ who take rest on the way. There are others who have the right notion of training as an opportunity for self development and professional preparation. They may be called as ‘Knowledge Seekers’.
The attitudes of the trainees towards the training situation depend upon categories to which they belong to. The first category of trainees (or Fatalists) would consider training as a necessary evil. They would want the training to be over soon. They may join the course late, may avail leave in between and during the course period they may attend personal matters. They take their stay in the training center as a convenient time to attend to their personal work, as there is no interference with their job or family duties. What they expect from the training faculty is to be soft with them, appreciate their needs and accommodate them. The trainers can easily win their good will if they can be lenient in their approach. The second group of ‘Tired Travelers’ tend to be pleasure seekers, being obviously tired, they seek rest, relaxation and comforts. They expect the best possible accommodation and excellent service which make their stay comfortable. They also expect them to be entertained during training sessions. They want to leave the class room with a pleasant feeling of entertainment, as experienced after seeing an interesting ‘movie’. When the trainees develop these kinds of expectations, the possibility of their showing initial motivation and interest in learning and for assuming self-responsibility for learning is remote.
The last category of ‘Knowledge Seekers’ are concerned with the benefits they derive from the training programmes for their professional development. They show diligence. They are hard working and realize their responsibility as trainees.
The first two proto-types of trainees should be changed into the third type, atleast to some extent by training institutions before the commencement of the training programmes through a planned programme of initiation and induction. Certain amount of self-discipline on their part and self-induced motivation and receptivity for training should be developed.
The self-induced responsibility for learning can also be encouraged by asking the trainees to indicate what they have learned from each session and by asking them to prepare brief notes of the lectures for submission. These notes should be evaluated to find out the extent to which trainees have applied their minds, have grasped the ideas and retained them. In contrast to this type of course evaluation, when the trainees are asked about their opinions regarding the lectures, usefulness of the information etc., they may express their opinions without assuming personal responsibility or without owning up their comments.

REFERENCES
1. Cheenuru Anjaneya Reddy, Whither Professional Civil servants The Hindu, Sep, 11th 1983 p. 17.
For further Reading
Saxena, A.P.(ed) Training in Government – objectives and opportunities, New Delhi, Indian Institute of Public Administration, 1985.

Emerging challenges in Human Resource Management

2006-05-19T06:57:00.000-07:00

If we want to understand the emerging challenges in the human resources management, it is perhaps necessary to develop a perspective of the new situation which organizations might have to face in future. Some of these changes are clearly discernible, while others show clear evidence of their probable occurrence.

Approaches to Human Resources Management are not static, in the sense that they are made one time and hold good forever, on the other hand, they are dynamic. They undergo systematic changes to meet the requirements that crop up in the future. The techniques that worked well in the past may not work well in the present and those which are operationally effective currently may need realignment to cope with future needs.

Anticipating possible changes and new requirements of the future and making prior preparations are always better strategy than waiting for the changes to catch us unaware, or remaining in complacency or involving in what is termed as ‘fire fighting’. Thus in the area of human resources management the practitioners should have futuristic-orientation as in the case of other functional areas, such as technology forecast, investment decisions, market analysis etc.

The fact that future may pose totally new problems due to different kind of changes and pressures in the business environment and that the current strategies may prove inadequate, bring us to the awareness of so called ‘Emerging challenges in Human Resource Management’.

Emerging challenges assume the form of the need to deal with emerging problems in the area of Personal Management and Industrial Relations in the coming decade. In order to understand the emerging challenges in the management of Human Resources, it is perhaps necessary to survey, understand and predict changes in the following sub-environments of the total environment within which Business and Industry operate, adopting ‘Systems Approach’

Technological Developments (Technological Revolution)
This includes growth in size and complexities of organizations and automation, including computerization. It is necessary to examine (a) how technological developments affects the design of jobs in terms of changing pattern of educational skill requirements, organizational structure performance control, etc, and the implication of these on techniques like personnel recruitment, selection, job analysis, job evaluation, developing compensation plans, developing appraisal systems and task structuring and (b) the strategies in the introduction and management of technological changes to secure the vital employee acceptance of the programme and productivity of the enterprise.

Changes in the Economic Environment

This includes examination of the impact of a number of factors on production. Some of the key factors are the scarcity of raw materials and other inputs including power and electricity, encouragement of the culture of consumerism, increasing consumer awareness and demand for quality products, continuing upward trend in the inflationary pressures with decrease in the purchasing power of rupee and its spiraling effects in the ever increasing aspirations of workers for higher wages and other material benefits and mounting costs on the employee welfare and other benefits.

In an inflationary economy, the resources tend to become scarce and the costs of machine, materials and labour multiply. These push up the capital and running costs.

The import of foreign technology experiences heavy constrains due to adverse balance of payments and this generates further pressure in developing indigenous technology.

The escalation in the cost of production per unit which is expected to continue at much faster rate in the coming decade than it is today may keep the managers under tremendous pressure to utilize the human resources in judicious combination with other physical resources, particularly when the human factor is singularly potent in making the other inputs work. It is known that at the end of all the technological innovations, the factors that make or mar productivity are the human factors and hence in any productivity programme it assumes greater importance.

Changes in the Legal Environment

It includes Industrial Relations and Employee Welfare Polices of our Government, which are enforced through a plethora of legislative measures.

Changes in the Socio-Cultural expectations of the work force

These include changes in the compositions of work force in terms of their education, social background, roots in urban setting and exposure to larger democratic culture of our country, all of which bring about changes in their expectations, attitudes and value-orientations which have bearing on the approaches to Human Resources Management.

Technological Revolution :

Strong winds of changing technology in several fields are clearly noticeable with the advent of the so called ‘Electronic Revolution’. The electronic wonder-the ‘microchip’ is indeed creating quiet but sweeping changes. Computers have become smaller and smaller. The personnel computers have started invading executive desks Micro Processor-based controls are increasingly being introduced in industry in regulating processes for ensuing quality and productivity.

Numerically controlled precision machine tools are fast replacing the traditional type of human operations and the conventional machine tools. Computers are introduced in offices and industrial organizations for several purposes, like production planning, control, marketing, financial analysis and so on. Robots are entering industry in a big way due to Japanese lead. The use of communication satellites have opened up a new international communication order. One of the latest developments in communication technology which is now available to our executives is ‘Tele Conference’. With the help of this facility executives in different organizations from far away can convene conference and exchange ideas without having to move from their personal executive environs and without wasting time and energy in jet travel. Office systems, like word processors are fast replacing the conventional equipments and styles of work. This view is also, shared by another Management Expert Thomas W.Gill. He says machines will soon take over all the routine clerical work, acting as clerical steam shovels…, keeping records will be done once. Personnel information will be recorded and stored in machines and print-outs from the machines will satisfy all the reporting needs.
What are the impact of these changes on the organization, its structure and jobs and in turn the patern of skill requirements, style of management and new conduct and discipline on the part of employees? Some of tose are;

Upgrading of the Skills at Lower Levels :

The technology brings in its wake the need for correspondingly higher human skills to handle them. For instance, there is need for higher skills and intelligence to operate a numerically controlled machine than is required to man a conventional one.

The need for increasing degree of mental application :

Developing a sense of urgency and sense of reciprocal understanding or roles and the need for increased team spirit and technical-orientation becomes a necessity.

Referring to the consequences of technological changes in the form of computerization ‘Peter Ducker comments, “Old fears that automation would result in large scale unemployment have universally been disproved. Few companies that installed computer to reduce employment of clerks have realized their false expectations. Most computer users have now found that they need more and more expensive clerks, though they call them operator or programmers. All automation might do is to shift employment from fairly low paid manual jobs to much paid or professional work”. With increase in technological complexities due to anticipated technological revolution, the number of specialized jobs or staff positions may increase as opposed to line positions. The traditional pyramidal type of organization design (fraternal or centralized type) may increase as flatten at its base. In cases of R&D organizations, it may even turn into a matrix structure. In the new structure, there will be more positions, at the junior and middle level requiring specialist skills than positions, requiring standardized routine work. Again, more self responsibility, originality, innovativeness, better appreciation of time, more personal dynamism, better imagination, zest for excellence etc., will be on demand. Because of increasing number of the so-called (to use Peter Ducker’s terminology)’ ‘Knowledge workers’ and the need to operate the systems at high speed, accuracy and in unison, coordinative or collaborative efforts could also assume additional importance.

At every level, more time and energy will have to be devoted for communication with people at next lower level, involving them, showing a sense of mutual trust, confidence and respect, providing challenge and partnership and developing perceptions of common goals of organization.

Are the current personnel systems and practices adequate to meet some of the emerging demands in the management of Human Resources, as a result of the technological changes? What are the emerging challenges?

It is possible to conceive some of the new challenges. These are:
1. Identifying more precisely, than is done now, the duties, responsibilities, skills, aptitudes and work ethics that make up new jobs, by applying scientific job analysis techniques.2

Currently, jobs are not analyzed scientifically and job descriptions are not systematically developed. Many management scholars2 who studied Indian organizations have come to this conclusion. Thus, there is lot of ambiguity and conflict which are personally frustrating to employees and also organizationally unhealthy. In the new technological environment, the job incumbents will look for much more job clarity than is made available now.

2. The need to rationalize selection and recruitment procedures and employee training.
The organization will be under greater pressure to locate people with required aptitudes and skills. This is so because in a complex technology, human error is more costly than in the case of traditional technological set up. The axiom of ‘fixing the round peg in the round hole rather than ‘fixing the square peg in the round hole’ should assume added significance. Once the persons are selected carefully they also should be placed properly and should be given continuing training to update their knowledge and skills and to save them from obsolescence. Thus, proper identification of training needs and selection and development of training methodologies assume added importance. Gaps in training will immediately reflect in production, as knowledge and skills are more critical factors underlying performance.

3. The need to establish a more clear-cut link between employee performance and administration of rewards by instituting objective performance appraisal system :
The knowledge workers would expect a clearly perceivable link between their efforts (performance) and administration of rewards (salary and other monetary and non-monetary ones). In other words, they look for recognition of their efforts, in addition to clarity of goals and performance standards and operational freedom. This can be achieved through the use of scientifically developed system of Performance Appraisal. Currently, the Practice of Appraisal used in many Indian organizations require improvement. In many organizations, the discredited system of C.R. (Confidential Records) is still in vogue. As the information from systematic appraisal is not use in salary administration, the salary differentials do not generally reflect differentials in responsibilities, skills etc., with the result that salary administration, which is one of the potent tools in the hands of management for motivating employees, does not serve its motivating function. It will be a new challenge for the personnel people to develop objective criteria of performance, particularly in the case of supervisory and executive jobs and, devise appropriate methodology for assessment, and orient all line Managers to appraise the performance of their subordinates in such a way that they are willing to improve their performance.3

4. Assisting the organization to introduce new technological changes:
To choose a new technology may be much easier than its introduction in an organization, because of possible employee-resistance. We know the cases of many industrial and business organizations in our country which met stiff opposition from the employees, when they tried to introduce computers. The resistance, top management can expect not only from the side of workers and their trade unions, but also from supervisors and executives.

The personnel functionary might have to shoulder this new responsibility of assisting the organizations in the introduction of technological changes by helping the organization in instituting a decentralized and participative set up. In such a set up, the employees should be involved in planning and introduction of technological changes, which ensures their commitment. An all India study of Personnel functions by Joseph4 reveals that legal and administrative duties of labour administration constitute larger part of personnel functions in Indian organizations today. Of course, the administrative and legal duties may demand considerable part of the time and efforts of Personnel functionaries. In addition, the future will make demand on them for exercising their professional skills in other areas most relevant from the point of Human Resource utilization. They will have to help different Management levels o shift their value- orientations from “Authoritarianism” and “Bureaucracy”, which are rather deep rooted in our Industrial culture to “Equalitarianism” and train middle and lower level employees to take full advantage of permissiveness with achievement – orientation, efficiency consciousness and accountability. They will have to plan new strategies for keeping employee ‘morale’ and ‘motivation’ relatively high, continuously monitor their levels and do systematic human asset accounting. In future, share holders and even the enlightened general public might expect statements from the Top Managements what they did to appreciate the value of human capital not only in terms of upgrading technical skills but also in terms of fostering supportive and motivational climate, as a part of their Annual Budget Statements.

With the complexities in technology, the human will and potential assume more importance. Realization of this spirit is found in the so called ‘Japanese Style” of Management. Organizations rely heavily on the potentialities of their employees and give them the highest place in production. They do not consider them as just factors in production. They provide them with an environment conducive for production. They provide them with an environment conducive for productivity and enriching quality of work experience. Many of their personnel practices such as ‘Team Approach to work’, ‘Informal Task-related Interaction’, ‘Emphasis on Productivity goals’, ‘organisation’s extended interest in the family of employees’ are and reflections of psychological and sociological principles of effective group functioning .In others words Japanese have developed a social technology matching with scientific technology.

Thus, Personnel functions are going to be all pervasive and touch upon all levels of human interaction such as at the shop floor level, union management level and within and between groups. Wherever people work together for a common goal, the personnel people will have to play a role in cementing human relationships. The personnel people in discharging their functions may have to do a ‘tight rope walking’, because they have to convince their top bosses about the need for changeover of the organizational culture from pyramidal to one of participation. This in the short run appear to erode their privilege to manage, and hence they may not be hostile to the idea. Sometimes, the Personnel Managers may have to incur their wrath unless the situations are handled wisely.

Again, democratizing the work culture is not a ‘panacea’ for all organizational evils. De-centralisation of the internal structure in response to external pressure for democratization may not be economically productive. It can even be counter productive. Thus, along with democratization, there is need to develop a sense of accountability, and productivity and quality consciousness by introducing appropriate practices such as goal setting, work planning, review, etc., These can often pose additional challenges.

Changes in the Economic and Legal Environments:

The cost of production goes up due to increase in the cost of inputs and wage bills, both of which are due to inflationary pressures in the economy. The expenditure on wages and other welfare benefits have been going up over the last several years, due to new concessions granted by the Government to the workmen and also due to increase in the bargaining power of the unions supported by labour-oriented polices of Government.

Jagadeesh, former N.I.P.M. President in his address at Mysore pointed out that “unions are getting more and more benefits like employment security, employment to their family members, wage increases, free lunch, free shoes, free polish, more and more number of holidays etc. with no proportionate return in the form of increased productivity.” He joked “Unions are always worried as to what to ask?” It is true. To check this money culture, the supervisors can perhaps involve the shop floor workers for better understanding and handling of the situations, in the sense that many of the external forces working in the minds of the workers such as shortages, inflation, etc., will have to be emphasized so that the workers start appreciating the realities and make healthy compromise. Again, the employees have absolute security of employment. The Management cannot take the workers into task easily when they neglect their work, Mr. Jagadesh in this address referred to above, quoted the case of an employee in one of the leading South Indian Banks in Calcutta who stood stark naked before his officers when he was interrogated for his misconduct. Assaulting superior officers by their subordinate staff for initiating action against gross indiscipline is not uncommon. Even the disciplinary procedures at the officer’s level are so legally involved that these officers enjoy absolute security of their positions. The senior author knows a situation in which a middle level executive gheraoed his immediate superior. The Managing Director had to intervene as a peacemaker and well wisher of both parties and patch up the differences. It may be true that it is easier for a manager to get rid of ‘his wife’ than to get of ‘his problem employee’.
The above trends may continue in future, perhaps with added momentum. These changes may have the following implications :

The Management cannot easily take punitive disciplinary action against workers for misconduct or to get from them a fair day’s work.

Because of mounting costs of production, the Managers will be under pressure to realize employee productivity.

The Management cannot expect much support from the Government either in conciliation or in arbitration to settle the disputes in their favour, because of its pro-labour oriented polices. These conditions will force the Management to re-orient itself in regard to industrial relations. They may have to avoid confrontational and legalistic approach to Industrial relations, accept and practice an approach characterized by ethics of collaboration, openness and trust between the two parties. Collective bargaining would no longer be looked upon as an arena to test the strength of the parties. Again, Industrial relations and personnel functions should not be narrowed down to the process of distributing monitory concessions across the bargaining table via union leaders. Thus, it will be one of future challenges for the personnel people to enable the organization to take a more comprehensive view (the so called ‘process view’) of Industrial Relations. Industrial Relations setting will have to be considered as opportunity no longer to be looked upon as an arena for testing the bargaining strength of the two parites. It should be viewed as an occasion for resolving conflicts and developing a sense of collaboration, mutual trust and reciprocity between the two parties. The relationships should be developed at every focal point of interaction such as shop floor participation, Participatory Forums like ‘Work Committees’, and J.M.Cs, Grievance Machinery’, collective bargaining, Disciplinary Procedures, etc. When the Management cannot relay on the external agencies for support in conflict resolution, they have to depend upon their own internal resources to resolve the conflicts constructively. The managements will be under greater pressure to run joint councils including collective bargaining effectively and solve the disputes internally without referring to a third party and also to use those forums for developing a sense of employee commitment to organizational goals. If the mechanism of collective bargaining fails, government’s intervention either in the form of conciliation or arbitration will assume greater importance, detrimental to the interests of the Management. Developing new knowledge and skills regarding the group processes necessary to run joint forums and training non-personnel people and line executives in those skills are going to be new challenges in future. There is enough documentary evidence to show that the past history of the functioning of those joint forums has been far from satisfactory.

Changes in Socio-Cultural Environment:

Since independence, there has been gradual but steady changes in the Socio-cultural background of the work force. These changes have affected people both at operative and executive levels. The gap between the Socio-cultural expectations of employees and organizational opportunities for fulfillment has resulted in mounting frustrations among them. A manifestation of this frustration at the junior and middle Management levels, which we find today, is their tendency to organize for collective action. Recent years have been witnessing the growth and proliferation of ‘Unions’ among Managers. Due to certain legal constraints and also for want of legal protection under Industrial Relations legislation, these organizations exist under the cover as Guilds, Associations, Federations etc., otherwise as ‘Karnik’ points out ‘they are new unions’. These Associations have assumed the feature of conventional unions such as their bargaining character, allegiance to other sub-groups than to their total organization, seeking environmental and political support, confronting attitudes towards their top managements, lack of cooperation among organizational members, lack of commitment to work and so on. The contesting behaviour between Top Management and the Managerial Associations have precipitated several problems in many public undertakings in India. In certain undertakings the relationships between Top Management and Associations have assumed the form of open conflict. The Top Managements in public undertakings are now faced with the problem of evolving a policy in dealing with Managerial Associations. Examination of certain current practices reveal that ‘adhocism’ prevails in dealing with Managerial Associations.6

The discontent among the employees is expressed in their work behaviour characterized by apathy, lack of result-orientation, lack of responsibility, sense of alienation, rigidity, excessive rule-orientation, resistance to change and unreasonable demands.

One could expect that the tendency on the part of higher level staff for collective action will gain momentum in times to come. It will be a new challenge on the part of the management to deal with this problem. The personnel functionaries may have to share larger responsibility in the management of managerial unions as also to revitalize the internal organizational environment in such a way that it provides a kind of satisfaction the executives are looking for and are currently lacking.

In conclusions, as one could see from the previous discussions, the new challenges in the area of personnel functions will largely be of two types: (1) Expansion of Role Boundaries of Personnel Functions and (2) Enriched professionalism.

Expansion of Role Boundaries

Pre-occupation with the administrative and legalistic duties of Personnel function will progressively give way to more in-depth professional work, intervention and application in such areas as scientific selection, placement, training, job analysis and work design, institutionalization of participatory forums and compensation plans with special reference to linking rewards to productivity. Other productivity oriented techniques in demand would be those like M.B.O., Zero defect, Quality circles, introduction of Scientific Performance Appraisal System, revitalization of internal structure and processes, new strategies of Conflict Resolution and other organizational development efforts.

In other words, Personnel Management will have a role in influencing the total organizational behaviour, taking into consideration the needs of both organization and human system.

Enriched Professionalism:

In order to meet the emerging challenges, the personnel People have to equip themselves better with skills in dealing with the human side of the enterprise. Instead of taking decisions based on manifest issues, they should be able to delve into the process level. Once they are equipped with the above skills and orientation, they will be able to develop a professional identity of their own and they would be able to go in for management applications based on Behavioural Science and Technology, which requires greater professional preparedness and attitudes conducive for continuous acquisition of new knowledge and techniques available in the field.

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References
1. Peter Drucker, Management in Turbulent Times – His New Guide for Managers Today. Pan Business Management Books – 1982.
2. See A.Sreekumar Menon, Job Analysis and its application, Management in Government, Vol IV No.2, July-Sept.1972; Mc Cormick, E.J., Jeanneret, R .P. and Macham, R.C.Position Analysis Questionnaire, Purdue Research Foundation, U.S.A.1969; A. Sreekumar Menon, “Organisational Climate and work Motivation” in Motivation and Organisational Effectiveness, ed.S.K.Roy and A.Sreekumar Menon, New Delhi, Shri Ram Centre for Industrial Relations, 1973, p.173-203.; Kahn, Katz and Rosenthal, Study of Organisational Ambiguity and Conflict.; Mayer, H.H.Making supervision Humane and productive in Meltzer, H.Nord, W.dD.(Eds) Making organizations Humane and productive, John Wiley, 1981,p.121; Roy, S.K., Bhargav.K, Sreekumar Menon A, Communication and Industrial Relations, unpublished consultancy Report, New Delhi, Shri Ram Centre for Industrial Relations: A.Sreekumar Menon. Leadership and Effective Performance. New Delhi, Shri Centre for Industrial Relations, 1975.
3. To get more comprehensive view of how performance appraisal affects human resource utilization, see the article Performance
Appraisal by A.Sree Kumar Menon published in the Souvenir of the Mysore Chapter of N.I.P.M.1982.
4. K.K.Joseph. Personnel Management in Indian-A survey.
5. Karnik, V.B.-Unions of salaried and professional employees”, in “Indian Labour Problems and prospects. New Delhi, March, 1974.
6. For more detailed discussions of ‘Managerial Unions’, see A.Sreekumar Menon Managerial Unions in Indian Business and Industry, and its Management, Lok Udyog, Mar.1975. A.Sreekumar Menon. Managerial Unionism in Indian Industry, A case In Suri G.K. & Bhargav, K. Case problems in Industrial Relations, New Delhi, Shri Ram Centre for Industrial Relations, 1975; Sharu S. Ranganekar, Middle management in search of an identity-paper published in the proceedings of the conference-cum-seminar of Officers Organisation. Bombay, June, 1973. Dayal Ishwar and Sharma, Baldev. Strike of supervisory staff in State Bank of India. Progressive corporation, 1971. Roy, S.K. and Sreekumar Menon, A. (eds) Motivation and Organisational Effectiveness, New Delhi, Shri Ram Centre for Industrial Relations. 1974.
7. For a detailed discussion of O.D. Techniques see: Wendell L.French and Cecil H; Bell J.R. organizational Development – Behavioral science intervensions for organization improvement. Prentice Hall, 1978,; (2) Dayal, Ishwar, Bennis Warren and De, Nitish. Readings in Group Development.
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Research Studies in Information Technology Sector

2006-02-04T05:18:00.000-08:00

Developed By Dr.A.Sreekumar Menon

Karnataka, especially Bangalore has become a favourit destination for IT and IT -enabled companies BPOs and Call Centers. The state has attracted FDI investments from all over the world. The current trend in the development of IT and IT-related industries is poised to witness unprecedented growth in the coming years, because of vast pool of trained manpower and people who have good command over English language. In spite of these advantages if the industry were to survive, take roots and grow, it is necessary to acquire data and information pertaining to several expects of IT industry and applying it in managing Human Resources technical processes and environmental relations such as the relation with the Government. IT industry in Karnataka is of very recent origin and hence no attempt has been made to conduct systematic and large scale studies on problems pertaining to this industry. Hence it is perhaps the need of the hour to address the problems, plan scientific studies and generate valid and usable data and information.

In this context, I would like to propos the following studies, all of which fall in field of Applied Behavior Sciences in Human Resources Management, Organizational Studies and Macro Sectoral Studies. Given below are the topics for Research Studies and proposals in summarized version. Those IT Companies interested to sponsor the studies can contact the above author for working out detailed proposal and subsequent arrangements for sponsorship.

A study of Diffusion of the so called “Best Practices of M.N.C’s (Foreign Subsidiaries) and Domestic Firms in India – Bangalore Area Study.
A Study of Changing Market Scenario in Urban Setting in Bangalore.
Study of Job Turnover (job attrition) among IT workers in Bangalore and effective strategies to retain them.
Study of Organizatio¬nal climate and Management Practices for creating work environment conducive for creativity, innovativeness, productivity, quality and customer-satisfaction in regard to products and services in software industry in Bangalore.
Out-sourcing IT work to India. A study of economic, social and psychological impacts on IT workers and their families- A study of their adjustment problems and formulation of effective solutions.
A study of IT industries-its corporate image-An area study in Bangalore.
Designing Performance Assessment/Appraisal/Evaluation/Merit Rating/Performance Review system and technique of performance feedback focused on development of competence and work motivation and team spirit for employees in IT Industry in Bangalore.
A study of Financial and Non-Financial Incentives provided to IT work force in Bangalore and their effectiveness interms of their satisfaction with their jobs, personal productivity and innovativeness.
Case studies of high performing IT companies in Bangalore.
An in-depth study of effectiveness of communication skills of IT staff working in Bangalore
Study of Customer Preferences for Services offered by Foreign Subsidiaries of Financial Services Firms in Indian - A study in Bangalore.

1. A Study of Diffusion of the so called ‘Best Practices – Technological, Production, Marketing, Financial, H.R.M and L.R / I.R of M.N.C’s Foreign Subsidiaries and Domestic Firms in India – Bangalore Area Study.

Particularly after the integration of Indian Economy with Global economy in 1991 by Govt. of India, M.N.C’s interest in India as a preferred location for F.D.I investment has grown unprecedentedly. This increase in F.D.I is poised to grow further in the years ahead. India’s recent emergence as a leader in Soft ware industry has given added boost to this development. In Bangalore itself now around 5000 software companies big and small got established during a short span. Thus Outsourcing and Transnational collaboration are going to dominate the field of industry during 21st century and perhaps beyond.

Debates on the effects of M.N.C’s In India often tends to be highly emotional and far from being considering it as unmixed blessing. On one hand it is claimed that M.N.C’s have contributed to socio-economic development of the country due to infusion of their superior knowledge and so called Best Practices – Technological, Institutional, Organizational (H.R.M and L.R/I.R) across their Subsidiaries and Domestic Firms emulating them. There is equally strong argument to show that M.N.C’s do more harm than good. M.N.C’s are seen as superior employers or as behemoths taking advantage of low wages and cheap labor supply, suppress the work force in Developing countries which allows M.N.C’s to bargain down home country employment standards and drive up their profit rates. A view contrary to this is expressed by some people who support M.N.C’s. They see M.N.C’s as more progressive employers than Domestic firms, who provide quality work floor and physical workplace arrangements, contractual agreements, Training Programmes and more attractive pay packets and liberal employee benefits and welfare programmes. Thus the opinions are equivocal. This main reason for this controversy is the non-availability of authentic information collected systematically through Research studies. There are very limited number of studies on the subject (see Kuruvilla, S; Frenkel, S and Peetz, D. in Cooke,W.N Multinational Companies and Global Human Resources Strategies 2003, p.166-193) What we find is that the views on the role of M.N.C’s are largely opinionated and impressionistic rather than factual. Hence there is need for more studies like this on the subject.

There is also another need for doing this study. M.N.C.’s with their profit –orientation, which is justified, will look for transferring their best practices to their Foreign Subsidiaries. So it is in their interest to find out whether diffusion of their best practices has taken or is taking place. It is also possible to have some best practices which are locally evolved in the Traditional Indian Setting, which work best. , knowledge of which will be added advantage to M.N.C.’s Thus a study of this kind assumes added importance

The Objectives

1. To find out whether Diffusion of Best Practices of M.N.C’s has taken place across their Subsidiaries and also Domestic Firms has taken/is taking place.
1. If so, what are those practices? (An In depth analysis and descriptive presentation of those Practices)
2. What are the predominant conditions that have facilitated institutionalization of Best Practices?
3. What are the conditions which are inhibiting transplantation of Practices and What are the strategies used to overcome resistance?
5. Are there locally bred Best Practices? If so what are those, and their nature? and what are the conditions that nurture their growth and development?

Research Methodology
Both Survey Research and Case Study Methodologies are to be employed.

In the first phase, a representative Sample of MNC’s Subsidiaries and Domestic Companies will be drawn and from each, certain number of Respondents from two hierarchical levels-managerial and worker will be selected to elicit response to the Questionnaire. A Licket type of Questionnaire will be prepared, using which data and information on the above parameters will be collected by mailing the Questionnaires. Secondary data in the form of Documents and statistics available in the Companies will be also being collected. The survey data will be analyzed quantitatively by using appropriate Statistical Techniques vis-a-vis computerization. The findings are expected to yield answers to the questions subsumed under objectives.

In the second stage, two Firms one Foreign Subsidiary and the second one Domestic Firm, comparable on relevant parameters like size, product line etc will be identified .Qualitative or descriptive data and information regarding the variables included in the study will be collected by using a Semi-Structured Interview Schedule and conducting personal interviews with selected respondents in the two Firms. The secondary Data available in these Firms which will throw light on the research problems will also be collected. The two Firms will be compared on the study parameters using the qualitative information collected and Case Studies will be prepared.

From the findings of the two phases of the study and analysis, we should be able to understand (1).whether M.N.C’s best practices are in use in their Foreign Subsidiaries, if so (2) what are those, (3) what conditions nurture them, (4) Are there best practices indigenously evolved, if so (5) what are those and (6) what conditions facilitated their functioning. The findings of the first phase of study using Quantitative Survey Research Methodology can be cross checked with those emerged in the second phase of study using Case Study Approach and Reliability and Validity of the findings can be established.

I was associated with a some what similar research project on Institutionalization of Management Education in India (through I.I.M’S) Sponsored and conducted by MIT and Harvard Business School jointly with Shri. Ram Centre For Industrial Relations, New Delhi during 1970’s and I also published a paper identifying organizational conditions which contribute to diffusion of innovations by IIM Graduates in the Journal Indian Journal of Industrial Relations.

2. A study of Changing Market Scenario in Urban setting, in Bangalore

Companies develop products and services by anticipating standardized customer needs by In-house R&D and try to sell the products by creating demands through advertisements and using aggressive sales promotion techniques. The Customers have practically no choice except buying what ever is available. Evidences are there to attest this fact. For instance, once the products are sold, the buyers can not return the product or exchanged in most cases. The relationship between the Manufactures and Traders with the Customers ceases once the sale is affected. The customers hardly get informed about the products and services satisfactorily and the trend is to encourage impulsive purchase with the result, Consumers understanding of the relative standing of the products in terms of quality and features vis-à-vis price is very limited. So they generally do not know which products are better than which products. Though products carry warranty, the warranty classes are so stringent that hardly buyers get any benefit out of it. The availability and quality of After-Sale Service is also much to be desired. What these feature stand for is Firm-centric Approach to production and Distribution rather than Customer-centric Approach. This type of consumer market is also called as “sellers Market” as opposed to Buyers’ Market” in which it is said that ”Customer is the king”. If we consider marketing/selling as a continuum, we can call it as Conservative-Progressive ends of the continuum. What is described above follows conservative end. In a least developed economy, the Marketing and Sales trend might be conservative. With economic development; the market – orientation also undergoes change and modification. For example in a Developing economy, it might move from conservative end to Progressive end. Sensitivity to consumers needs may increase. Indian economy is in that stage for the last 4 decades. Since 1991 with the opening up of the economy to the world market, there was a shift to better customer-orientation, a shift towards the progressive end of the continuum. Market-orientation changes further with further Economic development. For instance in Developed Economies facing global challenges, the Market orientation undergoes substantial changes. It goes much beyond customer-orientation. An Incisive Research study done by Prof C.K.Prahlad and Prof Venkat Ramaswamy (reported in the book “Future of Competition”) have identified this phenomenon which they have called as “Co-creation of Values”, according which Manufacturers, customers, professionals and even the general public who have the necessary knowledge, skills and innovative sprit contribute to value addition. According to their prediction successful Firms will be Customer or Consumer-centric, in the sense that both the producers and the customers, who are the end users will work symbiotically for maximum value-creation and customization and new strategies will be adopted to meet these new challenges of developing unique Co-creation experience. Global participation in Co-creation of unique experiences also leads to unprecedented refinements and perfections that human being would ever try. Their breakthrough discovery and their theory of Co-creation issue a warning against formulation of very rigid Patent Systems. For instance in India, the issue of patenting is currently debated both in the Parliament and in the Mass Media. The ideas such as Patenting should not close doors for continuing improvements in the patented know-how by restricting its access to innovators and that it should cover only key ideas in Basic sciences and that it should not cover standard formulations, are being voiced.

In the context of above discussions on possible changes in the Market-orientation in a globalized economy, it is interesting to find out at what stage is the Urban Market in Bangalore operates? Are consumers more aware of their rights now than before? Are the Indian companies particularly those which are Multinationals are enough consumer-oriented? How do Consumers perceive? In India legislation for protecting consumer interest has been in operation for the last few years. Consumer movements have also caught up momentum in recent years, apart from integration of Indian Economy with the Global economy. since 1991, almost 15 years since the opening up of the economy, this perhaps is sufficient time for the shift of market –orientation. So it is the right time now to launch such a study.

If there is a shift from Firm-centric to Consumer centric, market orientation if not co-creation, we might expect the following changes:

1. The manufacturers try to incorporate customer needs and preferences into the product. They conduct more consumer surveys to gather information and use as feed back more often than they were doing before.
2. The sale attempts will be more Customer-friendly than before.
3. Customers are more articulate now than before. We should come across more consumer complaints than seen before.
4. Attending Customer Complaints regarding defects in the products and deficiency in services, those relating to After Sales Service more promptly and more satisfactorily than before.
5. There should be less number of Consumer complaints filed against Consumer-centric firms by the Customers in the Consumer Courts compared to less Customer-friendly Companies.
6. Foreign subsidiaries might adopt more Consumer-centric practices compared to Domestic companies.
7. These Parameters should be positively correlated at statistically significant levels.

Research Methodology

A consumer survey is to be conducted. A small representative sample of consumers from Bangalore representing different Socio-economic levels is to be selected. The major Household Items which they bought during the last 3 years and the companies which manufactured those items are to be prepared, A Questionnaire to assess their Opinions, Attitudes and Experiences in regard to above parameters and in regard to their purchase of those Household Goods is to prepared. The sample Respondents are to be interviewed using the Questionnaire to collect their responses. Those responses are to be converted into numerical scale and subjected to Statistical Processes.

Two Firms, one Foreign subsidiary and the other one Domestic, matched on a number of parameters like the Capital investment, product lines, Size, location etc are to be selected to compare those two firms to find out whether the Foreign subsidiary of MNC’s adopt more Customer-Centric practices, both technological and HRM/IR compared to Domestic Enterprises. As the two firms are matched on the above variables, the differences if we find in the introduction of Consumer-cetric practices can be attributed to the Management Philosophy of MNC’s.

Results of the Study should help to verify the ercity of the statements/hypotheses mentioned above and should help us to know about the Market-orientaion.

Based on the findings, it should also be possible to recommend best ways to make Sale presentation and to attend to after - sales complaints to the satisfaction of the customers.

It is also possible to verify empirically in the Indian Context. The hypothesis that Customer-centric Firms are high performing ones compared to those who are Firm-centric and also to understand the practices, which we can call as “Next practices” in the Indian Industrial Milieu, which other Firms can adopt profitably.

3. Study of Job turnover (Job Attrition) among the IT workers in Bangalore and Effective Strategies for retaining them.

The questions that are asked are :

What are the patters of job changes among knowledge workers? What are the personal, family and social profiles of those who shift jobs and those who stay in the job? How does employee turnover affect the companies? Do IT Companies adopt policies and practices which promote employee commitment? If so, what are those and how effective are they? Are they cost effective and operationally effective? Do companies which have policies for employee retention perform better than others who do not have any policy? What methods can be suggested drawn from the latest knowledge available in the filed of Applied Behavior Science that would fit in with the overall Business Policy of the Firms?

4. Study of Organization Climate and Management Practices for creating work environment conducive for creativity, innovativeness, productivity, Quality and Customer-orientation.

The question asked is what Leadership, Motivational and communication Techniques and other Personnel and Organizational Practices such as Team Building, Management by Committees, Developing a Matrix Structure of Organization Design, Job Enrichment, Employee Development using Performance Appraisal and Training and such other Morale and Motivation Boosters promote creativity? The interest is to find out the next best practices followed by those organizations which show edge over others which can be implanted in those low performing organizations to stay in an environment of turbulent change and fierce competition.

In Bangalore, the boom of IT industry is a recent phenomenon. Hence IT Managements may not be having enough experience in the application of Modern Management techniques particularly in their field of Human Resources Management (H.R.M), the application of which is still to catch up even in other Industrial Sectors in India. So perhaps this is the right time to study the current status of institutionalization of Professional Management and promote its permeation into the system. Again as the IT industrial system is in its infancy, it is perhaps much easier to introduce changes, as the system resistance is expected to be less compared to old organizations, which have established their own value systems.

5. Outsourcing IT Work to India – A Study of Economic, Social and Psychological Impacts on IT Workers and their families-A study of their adjustment problems.

Outsourced IT work is a new and challenging experience to Indian employees who are relatively young. Though they possess excellent IT skills, they have to learn other capabilities such as collaborating with people having very different Socio – Cultural background, and speaking in different accents and have to work in the context of different time zones i.e. need to work in night shifts. It is not known whether these demands affects their personality and emotional adjustment, personal adjustment, and social and family adjustment which inurn affect their physical and mental health and in turn their productivity and quality of their life or whether they make satisfactory adjustments to the demands of their work and to demands of their personal, family and societal lives and if so it is interesting to know which can also be useful in helping others, what copping strategies they employ to balance the demands of the work and those of their Personal, Family and Social life. Considering the peculiar nature of their work, currently IT Companies provide them with certain incentives which are not available to other employees. The question is whether those incentives, which are not available to others, are sufficient to offset the ill effects of work and keep them in good emotional and physical health and sufficiently motivated to utilize their top IT skills.

One of the early Research projects out of which a book was prepared by me was “Human Problems of Shift work”. It was an empirical study of the problems faced by people working in Night and Rotating shifts and how they coped up with them. This project was sponsored by Planning Commission, Govt. of Indian which also provided grant for its publication as a book. This book received Delhi Management Association/Escorts Award for being best and original empirical work. There was excellent comment on this book by Prof. Howard Baumgartel of Kansas University, U.S.A. The Research Frame work and Methodology used in that project can be adopted for the above study of IT people.

6. A Study of IT Industries-Its Corporate Image

IT Industry is of very recent origin in Bangalore, Hyderabad and Chennai and other parts of India. The pay packet and other perks offered are much higher in IT Industry compared to other sectors. How do employees in other sectors and Social and Political Leaders perceive this? What these socially and politically influential people – Influential General Public expect from IT Industry as its Social Responsibility? Do they expect their participation in the Socio-economic Development of the Local Area and if so what are their expectations? (Recently a strong view as come up that there should be reservation in IT jobs giving preference to local people) What are the considerations which Social and Political elites have concerning the new generation of IT Industry which influence their favorable attitudes and public support for the growth and development of IT industry? Public support is necessary for the long term growth and prosperity of IT Sector. So IT Industries should do all they can to develop and maintain favorable image of the General Public towards it. Currently some of the major IT Companies in Bangalore like Infosys, Wipro and others are participating in some social welfare programs. The question is as yet we don’t have reliable information regarding how the local community perceives, whether they have favorable view, whether they support State expenditure in IT, whether they see the current social and economic contributions made by IT Companies in Bangalore are adequate, in what other ways, would they want IT Sector to contribute to the society and so on without being detrimental to the efficiency of IT operations.

7. Designing Performance Assessment/ Appraisal / Evaluation / Merit Rating / Performance Review System and Technique, Performance feedback focused on Development of competence and work Motivation.

A good Appraisal System is necessary for meeting the twin objectives of performance control on the one hand and improving the Competencies and work Commitment of Employees and their Career development on the other. In IT industries which employ the so called knowledge workers, the need for this is all the more stronger. The system should be such that it should encourage the employees to seek continuous feed back from the task as well as from “Superiors, Peers and even from those who they supervise with a zest for perfection. A proper system of “Appraisal and its proper introduction are very potent tools in the hands of Management to get best out of their workforce.

8. A study of Financial and Non-financial Incentives provided to IT Workforce in Bangalore and their Effectiveness in terms of their Morale, Motivation, Loyalty to company, Satisfaction with their Jobs, Personal Productivity, and Innovativeness or creative performance.

IT Employers generally feel that retaining their employees is one of the problems they face. Young bright recruits look for change of their jobs no sooner they are adequately trained and the reason quoted is for better pay and other perquisites. So revision of pay from time to time is the easy strategy which Employers adopt, which probably is not the best strategy. It is adopted because, it is more visible and easy strategy and lack of awareness on the part of management of motivating potentials of Non-Financial Incentives, which are not as tangible as monetary incentives. It is known out of Behavioral Science Research that when the Non-financial Incentives are lacking in sufficient quantity, the employees not being aware of their absence, articulate their needs in terms of Financial Incentives, hence ask for more money and other perks. Thus the desire for better salary is a deficiency need and one will ask for more and more, so long as those underlying non-financial needs are not satisfied. Raising salaries and perks are not the real solutions for retaining employees. Monetary or Financial Incentives, on the other hand should have as close link with performance improvement, as one can make it, if those were to have motivational effect, in the sense of maintaining current level and constant improvement of performance. In the light of these facts, it is perhaps necessary to undertake a systematic study of the motivating potentials of various financial and non-financial incentives. The employee benefits offered by the IT companies now could be those not preferred by them. They may be dissatisfied with some or other aspects of their implementation. So for proper selection of appropriate financial and non-financial incentives and the proper implementation, it is necessary to undertake a systematic study using Survey Research Methodology. I used this Methodology in 1970 in one of the studies, I undertook in Perth, Western Australia. The Typology Of Organisations entitled “Organisational Climate and Motivation and Organizational Effectiveness” authored by me and published in a book edited jointly by me can also be used as framework for the study and for bringing about the needed changes in the internal systems and processes of the organizations under study. Prof. Howard Baumgartel of Kanas University had also recommended its use for organizational study and interventions.

9. Case studies of High Performing IT Companies in Bangalore.

It involves the study of Organizational Design, Management and Supervisory Styles, compensation plans, Welfare and employee Benefit Schemes, Personal Policies and Practices, Project planning, Implementation and Monitoring and Review Practices, Career planning, Training and Development, Development of Customer –orientation and Result-orientation, Development of partnership skills among Employees for coordinated work accomplishment, Programs for Developing Creative and innovative spirit, Training for adapting to alien cultures and Overcoming Cultural Barriers. Training given to the Employees for working as Members of a well knight Team, Training imparted to the Employees in Professional Ethics Integrity, openness and for contagious desire for continued improvements in what ever one undertakes and the mechanisms of Family and community support extended by the IT companies to facilitate the employee adjustments to the changed rhythms of IT work schedules and the work environment. A representative sample of High Performing IT companies can be compared with those of low performing companies on the above parameters as a controlled experimental study for more reliable findings.

10. An In-depth Study of Effectiveness of Communication Skills in IT Staff working in Bangalore IT Firms.

Communication skills, written and Oral, Personal, Interpersonal; and Institutional Mode of Communication such as Presentation Skills, Group Discussions and conference Skills are as vital as knowledge and skills in information Technology for achieving personal and organizational productivity, particularly in IT Industry which employs knowledge workers, to use the term coined by Peter Ducker. Effective communication promotes job clarity, Interdependencies and coordinated work, Team work and creativity, all of which ultimately leads to personal and Organizational Productivity and ability of the Firm to face global completion. Though employees with top IT skills are available in the Indian Labor Market, this by itself is not sufficient for achieving high performance for which above skills are in demand. The IT Workforce consists of relatively young people who are almost fresh from the campus, where there is no training imparted for the development of above skills. Again as IT Industry is in its infancy, it is doubtful whether sufficient training and development opportunities are made available with in the organization for developing and nurturing such skills. In any case, a study this kind is worth undertaking. The study of selected Firms may bring to light certain findings which can be applied to other similar organizations for improving the communication capabilities. Certain the so called best practices in communication already known can also be introduced in the Firms selected for study, if those are found to be lacking. The findings could also be contributions to International literature on the subject.

11. Study of Customer Preferences for Services offered by Foreign subsidiaries of Financial Services / Firms in Indian – A study in Bangalore.

There is unforeseen and unprecedented growth of Foreign Subsidiaries of Financial Firms like Commercial Banks and Insurance Companies in India in recent years due to deregulation. There is also increasing Private participation allowed by the Govt. in Banking Sector recently. Banking Industry now offers several new products and new service delivery channels much beyond their conventional ones. Govt. of India has recognized the vital role played by F.D.I for Socio-economic development in all Industrial Sectors including Banking Sector, which was most recently opened for F.D.I. Several Foreign owned Banks such as Citi Bank, American Express, and National Grind lays and so on have started their branch offices in India. Customer financial needs, and financial products offered to meet those needs have multiplied and is ever increasing day by day. So also the channels of delivery have been revolutionalised. With the advent of Information technology, new methods of delivery of services such as Automated Telephone Call Centers, and Computerized Trading Service via Internet have come to be introduced. As a result of proliferation of Banks including private sector Banks, Private Domestic Banks has increased beyond description, with the result we find each Bank vying with other to adopt most attractive products and methods of delivery of Services to retain their existing customers and woe the potential customers. Personalized Banking, luxurious furnishing of Branch offices for customer comfort, Quick transactions such as Issue of Drafts within ten minutes, friendly Counter staff. Offering unconventional services such as Payment of taxes, Electricity and Telephone bills, Assets Insurance etc are being offered to promote business.

As the above developments are of very recent origin, they are not conceived based on the knowledge of customer needs and preferences obtained by Systematic Customer Surveys. On the contrary, the Bank Managements have developed those practices and the modes of Delivery of Services based on their intuitive knowledge and gut feelings. Thus it is in the fitness of things to plan and undertake a Customer Survey to understand how the Customers perceive the kind and quality of the services offered, how satisfied they are with those practices, what aspects of Services they are dissatisfied with?, how they do they want the services to be improved? And are there new services, they want to be extended? And if so what are they?

Research Design

Broadly two types of Methodologies are to be employed: Consumer survey and Case Study.

Consumer survey

It is to be conducted in two levels. At the first level, an explorative study will be done to identify the essential attributes of quality of services by interviewing a small sample of Respondents drawn from the customer’s list prepared by the banks. Both Clients who are satisfied and hence continuing patronage and those who have discontinued their transactions for reasons of deficient service are to be included from the intensive interview materials, an inventory of positive and negative factors (Positive factors are those reasons for continuing patronage and Negative Factors are the reasons for closing the accounts) can be drawn.

At the second level, a survey of a fairly large stratified random sample of Respondents / clients are drawn from the Customer list available in as many number of Foreign Banks, as decided to be considered for study. Domestic Banks can also be included to do a comparative study of the Products and Quality of delivery services. A questionnaire with 7 points scale may be developed to elicit the responses to the factors identified from the unstructured interviews. A number of questions / items on each factor to be included, so that a numerical score can be worked out for each factor and an Interval type of Distribution of Data can be obtained. The statistical Techniques which can be applied for analysis of Survey Data are Means, Medians, S.D., Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation, Partial Correlation, Multiple Correlation, Multiple Regression, Multivariate Analysis of Co-Variance, and Factor Analysis.

The data analysis should answer the questions:

1. What are the Product and Service features which the Customers are satisfied with and what are their contributions to satisfaction or what are their relative importances as perceived by the Customers?
2. What are the reasons for the Consumers to be dissatisfied with the Bank Transactions? And how important each one is compared to other?
3. Are there differences in satisfaction and dissatisfaction which can be attributed to different segments of the Customers based on their socio-economic back ground (to differentiate the population based on Socio-economic background, Standardized Scale such as Kuppuswamy’s Socio-economic Scale available can be used)
4. What are the improvements, which the customers look forward to for their hassle free Banking experience?
5. Are Customer responses regarding the range of Products and their delivery or Total Quality of Services unidimensional or multidimensional? In other words How many Reasons are there and whether they form meaningful clusters which are independent of each other? This can be found out by the application of the Statistical Technique of Factor Analysis (Principle Component Method with Varimax Rotation) of Thurston.

Payoff

The results of the study should be helpful to the Managements to make their services most effective for promoting productivity vis-à-vis Customer Satisfaction.

One of the studies which I did in association in two Public Sector Plants in India, titled “Communication and Industrial Relations as a part of Consultancy sponsored by Bureau of Public Sector, Govt. of India can be used as a part of the Model for this proposed Research Study.

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FLAT OWNERS WELFARE

2005-10-06T06:24:00.000-07:00

FLAT OWNER’S WELFARE ASSOCIATION – MEMORANDUM-
A MODEL AGREEMENT

Prepared by Dr. Sreekumar Menon

LIVING IN FLATS -Foreword

Living in Flats has certain advantages compared to living in Independent villas in cities like Bangalore. Life and property are safer in Flats, as 24 hours security staffs are on duty. Residents in Flats can enjoy more facilities and amenities, because of common sharing of costs such as Lifts, backup Generator, cheap water supply etc. at much lesser costs than is possible, if they were to meet expenses individually. So they enjoy more comfort spending less. Another great advantage is scope for social life. As people are living under the common roof, they are able to lead a better social life and that mutual help is made available. In cities, where the next door neighbors are often strangers, Flat life is a boon in this respect. What is said is one part of the story or one side of the coin. There is another part or another side to it.

Along with the above advantages, people have to adjust to each other; for enjoying the kind of freedom, they can enjoy in an independent house. They should refrain from acting in such a way that it is disturbing to others who live in the same flat. Again, Flat Administration should be proper and effective, if the Residents were to derive the benefits of Apartment life or if the Residents were to enjoy the amenities provided and to be really happy with their life in the Apartments.

Framing of proper rules, regulations and guidelines in the Administration of Flats and their implementation in its proper spirit are essential if Residents want to reap the benefits of living in Flats.

With this end in view a highly democratic and development type of committee structure and function called as Flat Owners Welfare Association – Memorandum has been worked out carefully. Apartment Residents should be able to enjoy the full benefits which Apartment living can offer to them, if they adopt this scheme.

FLAT OWNER’S WELFARE ASSOCIATION – MEMORANDUM OF ASSOCIATION

Name of the Association.

Registered Office.

Aims and Objectives

To ensure marketable titles of the Building complex by procuring the necessary documents such as the Building Plan approved by BMP, Sanction letter and other legal clearance such as certificates for lift, certification for the Generator from Pollution Control Board etc. That is meeting legal requirements pertaining to Building complex and other facilities.

To manage, maintain and regulate the proper use of common shared areas and the facilities / amenities provided such as Housing keeping, that is keeping the common areas neat and tidy, Elevator facilities, Electricity system including lighting in the common areas and the car park and maintenance of water supply and Tube well, Motor and Pumping Mechanism, Generator running and maintenance, Collection of Garbage from individual Apartments and safe disposal.

To pay taxes / levies to the Government applicable to whole Building and common areas except individual Apartments and those applicable to other Services like Electricity charges f0r operating lift, Generator, common lightning etc.

To provide round the clock security to the Residents and their property by posting security staff.

To ensure safety of the Building Complex by insuring the Building Complex against natural and man made hazards such as Insuring the Apartment Complex, installing Fire Extinguishers and by enforcing safety regulations in matters of handling hazardous materials such as L.P.G. Gas, Prohibiting storage of inflammable materials in individual Apartments, checking electrical wiring to prevent short circuiting and consequent fire hazard, training security staff in the use of Fire Extinguishers etc.

To provide for regular up keep, maintenance, repair, replacement of parts of equipments, periodical white washing and painting interiors of common areas and exteriors, to maintain the look of the Building; to maintain Garden availing the Services of the Gardener, if budget permits.

To plan and implement developmental activities which are in the nature of adding to existing facilities, improving upon the existing facilities, as found appropriate from time to time.

To generally look after and be responsible by consulting Residents on matters of interest to them, to protect their rights and ensure their welbeing and enforcing their respective obligations/duties as responsible Residents and towards the welfare committee and towards each other.

To liaise with outside Agencies such as BMP, BSSW, BESCOM, Telephone Companies Cable T.V operators and so on matters having bearing on the administrations of the Apartment Complex and individual Apartments.

To Frame rules, regulations and bylaws, found necessary for orderly and efficient functioning of the Flat administration.

To coordinate with other Apartment complexes and other external Agencies when it is required for the creation of certain facilities.

To decide the rate of monthly maintenance charges and for levying for other sources of funds such as Reserve Funds, in consultation with Apartment Owners.

To provide and maintain common facilities in most economic way and build up Reserves for Capital Expenditure through extra-collection from members and investing the amount in low risk high growth instruments.

To promote facilities for Health, Recreation, social life, literary and cultural pursuits with in the Building Complex and to celebrate social festivals and National Days like Independence Day and Republic Day and thus giving chance for the Residents to meet each other and develop fellow feelings .

To realize the above objective, a Managing Committee having two tiers have been settled and the activities which it would undertake have also been spelt out.

Two tiers or Types of Committees :

Policy Making Committee and implementation Committee.

This Committee is empowered to take all the major decisions concerning Flat Administration such as fixing monthly Maintenance, levying money for annual Repair and Maintenance of the Building, Capital expenditure, Creation of new facilities etc. Here, Managing Committee referred to above is the Policy making Committee and implements those decisions which have long term implications. . Only owner members are eligible to serve in this committee. This Committee will consist of three Owner Members. Serving in this committee is mandatory for all the Owner Members. They serve in turn .The names of persons to serve in this Committee are chosen by lot, if the Members do not volunteer to serve in the committee. Those members will elect among themselves President, Secretary and Treasurer.

House Keeping Committee

This Committee discharges the function of Day to Day house keeping functions. This committee consist of President, Secretary and Treasurer and another two members are elected/selected by Residents among themselves. This Committee allows participation of Tenants in the day to day management of House Keeping functions. Tenants get chance to give their views and opinions regarding how satisfactory are maintenance functions and what can be done to make it better from the point of view of satisfaction of Flat users.

Though Tenants can choose their representatives to this Committee they do not have voting rights in selecting Members of the Managing Committee. Both Managing Committee and House Keeping Committee should meet atleast once in a month. General Secretary should prepare Agenda for the meeting, in consultation with the president and circulate it in a notice including the minutes of the previous meeting atleast 4 days prior to holding meeting. All the office bearers are expected to read the Agenda and prepare themselves for meaningful participation in the meeting. The quorum for Managing Committee meeting could be 3 and that for House Keeping Committee, 4.

As far as possible, decisions should be agreed by all. In cases it is not possible, the issue is to decided by simple majority vote.

Powers of Office Bearers

President

President will have overall control of Maintenance Administration of the Association. Generally, he should be a person with good knowledge in technical matters related to Building construction, utility services, legal and administrative matters pertaining to ownership of Flats , having ability to liaison with Government and other Agencies , having Planning and Administrative Skills and should be sociable with people. He should be able to speak fluently in a language such as English, a language which is understood by all the Residents. He should also have interest in social service and should be friendly with people. He should be able to take quick decisions and implement them speedily.

He will have to represent the Association for all legal actions to enter into contracts or pursue legal action to safeguard the interest of the Association. He is authorized to sign all necessary papers and documents. He is indemnified against risks or lose to the Association that might happen, in spite of his best efforts and actions in good faith.

In his absence, President can authorize any other members of the Executive Committee to officiate, in consultation with the members of the Executive Committee.

2. Secretary
He will implement the decisions of the Executive Committee and discharge day to day administrative Activities of the Association, under the guidance and general supervision of President. He appoints Employees such as Security Staff, Housing Keeping Staff, as approved by the Managing Committee and supervise their work to meet the expected standards. He is authorized to incur expenses not exceeding Rs.________ towards house keeping expanses, without prior approval of the Managing Committee. He ensures regular collection of Maintenance and other levies and can impose penalty for delayed payment or non-payment.

Person to be elected to the post of General Secretary should be friendly with people, should have interest in rendering Social Service and should carry out tasks by considering the views and opinions of the Members, who are affected by his actions.

He should not act what he personally thinks right, without consulting people and in such a way that the Members feel that he is not acting in the common interests. He should be soft spoken and approachable. He should be able to speak fluently and clearly. He should possess administrative skill. He should be objective in what ever he is doing.

He can hold a petty cash account not exceeding Rs._________ with him for incidental expanses. However, this cash balance is to be incorporated in the Treasures Account.

Treasurer

He is in the custody of all properties of the Association including Funds. He should maintain a Asset Register and enter all the properties of the Association in detail in it. He should keep it up to date. He should keep the Accounts as per the standard Accounting procedure adopted and such that it meets annual auditing requirement. The person who holds Treasurer’s position should have interest in maintaining accounts or should like to work with numbers and should be prompt and systematic in preparing accounts.

He is empowered to operate Bank Accounts of the Association jointly either with President or Secretary, Preparation of statements of Accounts including Annual statement is his responsibility. He may have to present financial picture to Managing committee as and when it is required.

The Representatives of the Tenant Members are also expected to look after some specific Functions such as overseeing functioning of lift and Generator, lighting arrangements and House keeping.

The term ‘Owner’ stand for the person in whose name Sale Deed is registered, and also includes their relatives like spouse, children, parents, in-laws and so on, whom the Owners authorize to represent them.

Any Member of Managing Committee absents himself / herself without the approval of the Committee / sufficient reasons, for more than three meetings automatically ceases to be the officer bearer. Any Member can Vacate his Membership position, when his resignation letter is addressed to President is accepted by the Committee.

Owner Membership
All the Owners of the apartments are to become Members compulsorily. In the case of joint ownership only one person, either the first or second person will be member of the Association. In the absence of the person who owes the Flat, he can nominate one of his close relatives fro Owner Membership.

Tenant Members
In the Flats which have been rented out, the Tenants become Tenant Members, automatically.

General Body
Authority of General Body
The ultimate authority on all matters of Flat Administration rests with General Body.

More specifically,

The General body frames subsidiary rules which are called Bylaws and amends existing ones, consistent with the Rules and Regulations of the Association, found necessary from time to time for effective administration of Association Mattes.

Examines reviews and passes Annual Accounts.

Examines and passes Annual Budget.

Conducts elections of Members of the Managing Committee and House Keeping Committee.

Rectifies Disciplinary Actions taken against Owner Members, Tenant Members and Office Bearers for violation Bylaws.

General Body has power to remove any office bearer from his position if he is found working against the interest and welfare of the Members and Flat Ownership.

Approves raising of and expenditure from Reserve Fund.

Approves expenditure over Rs.20,000/- under any head in Annual Account.

Fixes monthly maintenance charges, Revisions and creation of Reserve fund.

Notice
Notice for General Body / Extra-ordinary General Body Meetings to be served to the member’s minimum of 21 days in advance. For Annual General Body Meeting, audited statement of Accounts should also be made available. Along with the Agenda for the meeting. Notice to the members to be sent in writing in Delivery Book and receipts to be acknowledged. Notice to the Members staying outside and out of Bangalore, is to be mailed by post or the massager to be transmitted via E-mail. Members are to be informed for acknowledging the receipt of notice for General Body Meeting.

All the Members are expected to attend the Meeting and take part in the deliberations and help to conduct the proceedings in an orderly manner. The Members who are unable to attend the meetings are expected to keep the Managing Committee informed.

At least 25 percent of total members should be present to meet the requirement of quorum. If the Members present fall short of that number, the meting is to be adjourned to a later date. If in the second meeting also, if the quorum is not met, the Managing Committee can conduct the meeting and take decisions. The decisions taken will be considered as reflecting the consent of all the members. If the meetings consistently fall short of required number of people, the members are to be reminded of their responsibility to attend the meetings. If the orderly, peaceful and productive ways of conducting meetings are disturbed by members, they are to be reminded of the need to conduct themselves as responsible members. If they don’t heed, the other members of the General Body is expected to invoke what ever sanctions they think fit, against those erring members.

The President of the Managing committee who presides over the meeting and other members of the Managing Committee who share in organizing General Body Meeting are excepted to give enough opportunity to the Members to express their views, without cutting them short or imposing their views using power of their positions. Similarly, the members should say whatever they want to say without offending others. Enough opportunity should be given by all for the emergence of common views and agreements in the discussions. Members should accept the views and opinions commonly expressed and not try to be argumentative. In other words, the so called “Problem Solving Approach” should be adopted in all meetings.

The following are the sources of Funds for Association Expenses

Admission Fee paid by every Member.

Monthly Maintenance Fees, as fixed.

Interest from Bank Deposits

Any additional collection for Developmental Work and Revenue as approved by General Body.

An Admission fee of Rs.500/- Payable by every Owner member at the time of enrolling as the Owner Member. A monthly maintenance charge as determined by General Body from time to time should be paid by Owner Member / Tenant Member regularly every month in advance with in 10th of that running month. It is the final responsibility of the Flat Owner to pay the monthly maintenance charges. However they can arrange with his tenants to pay. If the Tenants default payment, the Owner of those Flats, rented out are to be held responsible. For delayed payment, some interest on the amount as decided by General Body may be charged for various periods. If payment is pending for a long time, General Body can impose other sanctions like cutting water supply. The power to impose such sanctions will vest with the Managing Committee. The Owner Members agree for such actions, as such it will be considered legal and no dispute arising out of that can be brought to court of Law. Out of the funds collected, a part should be kept as a Fixed sum, as decided by General Body as Reserve Fund for meeting Capital Expenses for creating new facilities , long term recurring expenses like Maintenance of the common Areas and Exteriors of the Building Preventive Maintenance of Elevators, Generators etc., payment of annual Taxes to the Government Bodies etc. Rest of the money is to be kept in the General Fund for meeting day to day and monthly recurring expenses such as staff salary, purchase of materials for House Keeping etc.

President will preside at the Managing Committee Meetings, General Body / Extra-ordinary General Body Meeting. In his absence any other Member will be asked by the President in Consultation with Managing Committee Members to preside over and conduct meetings.

The Duties and Responsibilities of Owner / Tenant Members
These have been laid down as By-laws; duly approved by General Body.

All members are to pay regularly and promptly the monthly maintenance charges fixed by General Body before 10th of every month. For any payment after that period, an interests of 30% per annum to be charged from the due date till the date of payment.

The fee is fixed currently as 60 paise per Sq.ft of the super built area of the Flat. Subjectto increase or decrease as decided by the General Body.

All apartments should be used for Residential purpose only. Car parks should be used only for parking the vehicles. Neither the Flats nor the Car parks should be used or rented out for any commercial purpose.

No hazardous and or inflammable materials should be stored in the Flats or in the car parking area.

No Flat Owner should alter the basic structure of their Flats, such as changing the positions of entrance door, windows etc which mars the original architecture of the Apartment Building.

All the fittings and fixtures that are there in the common areas like Name Boards, Letter Boxes, Grills, Gates etc., and the space in the common area should not be altered in any manner either by the Owners or Tenants.

The Managing committee at its discretion can allow to put the Names of Tenants, along with Name of Owners with their respective Flat No. on the Name Board, on the request of Owners/ Tenants.

No member should stick bills / notice, display advertisements on the outer walls or any other common areas nor should soil the wall. All should co-operate to keep the place neat and tidy.

Furniture, Empty cartons, shoes Racks, Dustbins , Flower Pots or any other objects should not be kept in the common Verandahs, staircase etc., which affect cleanliness and appearance.

Common areas should not be used to host private parties, congregations etc without permission from Managing committee and without seeking the consent of the neighboring flats and without undertaking responsibility for not causing disturbance to others and for keeping the place clean, after the get together.

Structure alteration with in one’s Apartment that affects the strength and architectural appearance of the whole Building should not be made.

The Flat Owners should carry out the internal maintenance work. They will be accountable for damage caused to other Flats / other parts of the building for want of timely maintenance work carried out in their Flats.

Owners should meet the costs of major repairs relating to lighting, water supply and sanitation by themselves including costs of materials and labour. However for minor repairs, services of the Technicians are made available free of cost by the Association.

Association will maintain in their pay roll a part time Electrician and Plumber (Sanitary Worker)

The car parking area should be used for parking cars or two wheelers only. The vehicles should be parked with in the parking area. The vehicles should not obstruct the free movements in the Run way and or common areas. While starting the vehicles, the engine should not be raised high causing loud sound. If the sound of high intensity is due to defective silencer which needs correction, it should be attended to. Similarly, they should also ensure that too much exhaust smoke due to poor turning of Engine is not released, in the Car Park area. Sound of high intensity is disturbing to those who stay in the Flat. Similarly Exhaust smoke pollutes the environment in the Flat and causes health hazard to the Flat Dwellers. Flat occupants while reversing their vehicles should switch off the Reverse Horn, which causes disturbance and also refrain from honking, to call security staff to open the gates, especially during night.

Common areas and facilities should be put to proper use. Common areas include space left on all sides of the Building, common run ways in the car parking areas, Verandahs, Staircase, Lift room etc. These areas should be available for all and no one should do anything that affects the common use. Verandahs serving on passage should be used only for normal transit through them. They should not let their children play or do cycling etc in those areas.

Right of Entry

In the face of the emergency such as short circuiting, breakage of main water-pipes etc originated in an Apartment, which might affect safety of other Apartments or the whole building, if the Owners / Occupants are not available, any member of the Managing Committee can break open the lock and enter the Apartment without prior permission, in order to avert the danger. However, in such cases, the person who breaks the lock / door open will do it in such a way that only minimum damage is caused to the door and fixtures and that the Managing Committee will get the damaged part repaired / replaced as decided by the committee or will reimburse reasonable charges for repair etc. as decided by it.

All people other than those who stay in the Flats should enter their Names and Address, in the Visitor’s Book kept at the Security Desk; before entering the Apartment. Security Personnel can also enquire about their where about and satisfy themselves that they are bonafide visitors. If security staff has any doubt, he may allow their entry only after checking with the person/s in the Flat whom they want to meet.

Managing committee can also issue entry pass to the relatives of the families in the Flats, as requested by representative Flat Owners; in such case the responsibility is their s for any undesirable happening on account of admission for their entry in the Building.

Security Staff should keep a Register recording all the personal details of the people including photographs like Ayahs, who come to the Building daily and passes should be issued to them. Such details should be made available to the nearest police station which comes handy when thefts etc. are to be investigated.

No outsiders / Strangers such as Sales people, people visiting houses for collecting money for charitable purpose should be given entry into the Apartments.

Technicians who come to attend the repairs in Flats and people like L.P.G Gas delivery boys, or boys delivering provisions etc on order should be permitted entry into Apartments only after checking with the occupants of the concerned Apartment, whom they say they want to meet.

These steps are taken for ensuring safety of life and property of the flat occupants and such restrictions should not be seen as acts of curtailing freedom of the Residents. However the Security Staff is expected to be polite and decent in their dealing with these people. Any complaints regarding the behaviour of the security staff can be brought to the attention of General Secretary.

Residents are expected to follow safety regulations in handing and use of such equipments like L.P.G Cylinder, in maintaining proper electrical circuits etc. such that no accidents which originate from above causes happen and the safety of the individual Flats and the Building as a whole are ensured.

If any such accidents occur due to negligence of safety practices by the Residents, they have to compensate monetarily for the lose due to accidents.

During normal times also Members of the Managing Committee, whom they authorize may have to enter flats to attend to repairs of electrical, sanitary and other systems, as a part of their maintenance work pertaining to the whole building. At that time they should be permitted to enter the Flats. At the same time Managing committee should see that the Residents are not unduly disturbed. The Managing Committee Member or any authorized person should oversee the work of the person inside of an Apartment to see that the Residents are not put to unnecessary inconvenience

Residents should not throw Garbage through their windows towards outside. Garbage should be collected and kept in a Dustbins and should be given to Ayahs for safe disposal. It is the duty of the Managing Committee for the regular removal of the garbage from the Garbage Bin and keep the place neat and clean. Residents should not wash their sit out with water which splashes out and falls on those down below.

Residents should not play Radio / T.V / Audio / Video equipments in such high volume that it disturbs the neighboring Flats. Similarly, while cooking they should ensure that no strong smell of Masalas, non-veg. items etc. emanates, which neighboring Flat people feel obnoxious or repulsive. In cases of such deep frying, use of kitchen chimneys is recommended.

Residents should use all the facilities and resources provided such as Lifts, Water etc. properly. Water for instance is a precious resource. It is not ever lasting. To bring water to house taps also costs. So it should never be wasted. Managing Committee should oversee the use of water. Water should not be used disproportionately.

The fixtures in the common areas such as lifts should be used with care, so that it does not go out of order frequently and these are kept in good shape. If any one uses these roughly and spoils he is to get it repaired or replaced as the Managing Committee decides fit. It is the responsibility of all the Residents to keep everything in the common area in presentable and good condition.

Disciplinary Appeal Committee
The Managing Committee is authorized to enforce discipline in the use of common areas, resources and facility by all Residents and they can impose sanctions. If the persons against whom the actions have taken are aggrieved, they can appeal to Policy making committee for redressal.

The Members can give suggestions for improvement and creation of new facilities to
Managing Committees. Owner members can give suggestion for actions having long term implication which call for high expenditure to Policy making committee Both Owner members and Tenant Members can offer their suggestions for action for improvement of facilities regarding day to day matters to Maintenance Committee. The Committee Members are expected to consider their suggestions objectively and seriously and try to implement those which are worthy of implementation. They are also expected to inform to the persons who made suggestions whether those suggestions have been considered favorably and if those are not considered favorably ,the reasons thereof.
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MANAGEMENT BY COMMITTEES-Dr.A.Sreekumar Menon

2005-03-06T22:26:00.000-08:00

MANAGEMENT BY COMMITTEES-Dr.A.Sreekumar Menon
Psychologist, Specialist in Management Science and Author of Award Winning Management Books

In all most all the organisations, especially in larger ones, one finds the institutionalization various committees.

Some examples of committees are Shop floor Productivity Councils, Departmental Committees, Foremens’ Committees, Institutional Coordination Committees, Special Project Teams, Research Administration Committees and so on .Memberships in those committees cut across the formal hierarchical levels in the organisations .

Committee functioning offsets some of the ill-effects of centralized or pyramidal organisational structure.

The Committees are broadly of two types:- Viz.

1. Committees superimposed on the formal structure
and
2. Those functioning independent of formal organisational structure.

When the hierarchical control of functions is superimposed on the committee functioning, it is called a Matrix Structure. In Research and Development Organisations, one finds this type of structure. There are very few l hierarchical levels In this the operating personnel form project teams. The Discipline Head controls the work of project teams rather than the work of individual workers as in the type of Hierarchical type of organisational design. Committee setup offsets the negative effects of tall organisational structure such as delay in organisational communication, lack of individual freedom, standardization of operations, which give no scope for individual initiative and creativity and innovativeness and problem solving skills etc, which are the backbones of organisational dynamism, growth and development. In addition to the functioning of these committees, several meetings are also arranged with during working hours as necessary means for effective administration and management. Some companies take pride that they are managing by Committees. There are Organisations, where just the opposite trend can be observed. They might be of the view that setting up of Committees and conducting meetings for organisational decision making is share waste of valuable time, which could be better utilized properly by formal assignments and direct communication of what is to be done. What could be reasons for holding such opposite views? The underlying reasons could be several. There may not be common sharing of understanding regarding the purpose or goals which are to be achieved. Even those who have set up such committees may not be clear as to why such Committees were set up in the first instance or they might have thought of achieving certain objectives, for which Committee mode is not the right kind of action. Committees are mechanisms for democratic functioning of the organisation or running of the organisation in which employees participate. Democratic values being most cherished values of our century. Business and Industrial Organisation receive public acclaim and look prestigious, when they run their organisations democratically rather than in centralized way. In other words, it has sales appeal and boosts the social image of the company, how ever short run, it may be. Another reason is that the Centralized or Top heavy or pyramidal type of organisation might assume that it is easy to talk to a group of people rather than to people individually.

The right motives in setting up committees and conduction staff/employee meetings should be abiding faith on the part of top management in democratically running the enterprise, thereby upholding the general democratic principles cherished in our constitution and belief in the capabilities of employees at the levels and appreciation of the principles of Group Dynamic and their usefulness in achieving optimum employee productivity vis-à-vis employee satisfaction through participation in groups.

The management which is guided by these motives has real faith in the participation of employees. The committees could be setup to serve one or more of the functions such as problem solving, goal diagnosis and consultation, planning, goal setting, review, decision making and so on. Top management should be clear regarding the purposes when committees are set up that is whether the objective of the committee is to solicit problem solving by employees for seeking geed back and consultation with employees for joint decision making. Many times, the top managements are not clear about the goals of the committees, they set up.

At other times though managements know why a committee has been set up, they do not communicate the purpose to the employees. This results in conflicting expectations on the part of the management and the employees. For instance, the top managements may set up say a Foremen’s’ committee or shop superintendents committee as a channel of communication to get to know about their opinions about the effects of the policies and actions at the shop floor level and to advice them on matters that affect them and their departments. The top managements might reserve to themselves the authority to make decisions. The members of the committees not being aware of the top management’s thinking might expect the top management to make decisions jointly on certain matters. When they find this not happening, they may feel disheartened regarding the whole committee affairs. The membership and chairmanship of the committees are wrongly considered as elitist positions, positions enjoying status. Getting nominated to these committees by the Top management is considered as the privilege both by the managers and employees, and as adding feather to the cap. Executives may gauge their status by the number of committees, they serve. Top management also may times nominate to these committees employees who are loyal to them and who enjoy their confidence rather than based on their interest and capabilities. These images should go, if committees were to serve the real purpose. Only those employees who are active able and possess leadership qualities and conference skills (skills in conducting and attending meetings) should be nominated.

The membership and chairman ship of these committees should be as widely distributed in the organisation as possible, and almost all executives should be allowed to serve in some committees or other.

Inter-Departmental Committees

Inter-Departmental Committees are set up for communication, coordination, joint consultation and joint decision making. The scope those Committees provide for employee participation should be made clear. Employee might like to know on which matters they will be consulted, and which matters will be decided jointly. Consultation means seeking views and opinions with out necessarily accepting them. In joint decision making, employees influence decisions. In communication, the information which in the judgement of Top Management is passed onto the employees, at best with opportunities for seeking clarification.

The Inter-Departmental Committees are known by various names such as Institution Coordination Committee. Committee of Heads of Departments, Superintendents’ Committees and so on . The chiefs of different departments of functional areas of Disciplines are members of the Committee with Chief Executive or some senior executive at the corporate level as the chair person.

In large organisations having over 500 executives, and having many departments, communication and co-ordination and centralized control for achieving the overall organisational goals are difficult. Sprawling corporations having plants several miles away from each other pose such problems of communication and co-ordination. Committees functioning in such cases, helps to achieve the desired results.

Joint committees help communication and co-ordination, as, it provide scope for joint discussion with employees at lower level with less formal (with less hierarchical orientation or more equalitarian) setting. With in the committee set up, the employees from different departments and different levels are able to meet, interact and exchange their views and ideas. Members are able to discover what is going on in other areas/departments which is of interest to them in discharging their duties effectively, in eschewing their commitment to the goals of the tam rather than as Heads of different functional groups vying with each other for power or indulging in factionalism and power play and to work the areas of planning, technology, investments, markets, human resources, public relations and legal matters and entrepreneurial orientation, which are necessary for occupying top management positions at the corporate level. Infact, these inter-departmental meetings should also be used to pick up potential candidates for directorial staff or for planning management succession at the corporate levels.

The communication that takes place in committees is much more than what takes place though lines of command provided the committee chairman who happens for one way (downward) communications. These committees are meant for two way communication. If the chairman uses these committees for one way communication, they become defunct. Hence, the chairman should know how to play his role as chairman to conduct deliberations in such committees.

Project Teams:

Project teams (also called Task force) are committees consisting of employees which cut across the organisational hierarchy and which are set up for a particular purpose. The life period of these committees may be shorter or longer depending upon their mission. But, these are not like other permanent organisational structures like departments, job position, joint consultative committees etc. They are dissolved once the missions for which they are set up are achieved.

These committees help pool together the expert knowledge and creative abilities widely distributed throughout the organisation and bring to bear upon thrust areas. Some of the examples of expert committees are business planning committees, cost control committees Research Advisory Councils, production improvements committees, etc. The committees on postal excellence set up by government of India recently to revamp postal systems and operations is an example of this type of committees. These committees may have knowledgeable people both from inside and outside the organisations as members of the committee. These committees are advisory in nature, in the sense they submit their recommendations to the top management for appropriate action. The working of the expert committees compensate some of the deficiencies associated with functions and formal authority structure. People with in the formal structure and busy in carrying our routine and programmed functions and they do not get chance to use their original ideas, and to be creative and innovative. The organisational control over them is also rigid and the employees particularly those who have capabilities remain frustrated for want of opportunities for self expression in their jobs. Expert committees help individual employees for their self-expression and for undertaking tasks which are challenging or those which call for the special knowledge and skills they possess. The organisation is also able to mobilize the creative energizes of people, individual goals with organisational goals, provided these committees are made to function properly.

These committees should be provided with a clear character of goals and adequate time frame for achieving their mission, while giving them the necessary operational freedom for the members and also top management support. Without a definite mission and time target, these committees move like a ship without radar, reaching nowhere.

The members of the management who are to execute the committee’s recommendations are not included in the committee, as they cannot see the different possibilities objectively before selecting the one best and feasible, which is in the very nature problem solving.

Joint Consultative, Participative and Action Committees

These committees consist of representatives of management and employees cutting across all the levels. They are the forums for employees participation set up for bringing about improvements in different areas like improvements in worker productivity, machinery and processes, plant layout and safety etc., The examples of such committees are productivity committees, work committees, canteen committees. For examples, some managements set up shop floor production committees only as an advisory or consultative committees, while others give authority to these committees not only to make suggestions but also implement jointly the suggestions and production programmes. The rationale behind setting up such committees is the firm belief on the part of Top management that the employee involvement is the best way to get best out of them for the company and it is the best which an employee can get from the organisation.

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Work Design as a source of Motivation – The Indian Context

2005-02-17T07:08:00.000-08:00

The general lot of the working class in India has improved substantially, since independence. The Top Managements and the Government have been paying increasing attention to workers and their needs. Working class has been securing steady increase in wages and welfare and non -wage benefits as a result of their bargaining strength, labour-oriented policies of the Government and progressive policies of the employers. However, these increases in wages and other benefits have not resulted in any tangible returns from the workers in the form of increased productivity, better employee discipline and so on.

A new problem
Parallel to the above development, the top managements in India have not been paying proper attention to the problems of vital sizable section of people consisting of Junior and Middle level managers. They are the middlemen between the top management and the front line work force. They are responsible for converting the top management policies and decisions into organisational results. Their co-operation is essential for the top management to run the business effectively. Most of the people who now occupy junior and middle level positions do not belong to the generation of people who occupied these positions before independence. These new generation managers who are often much better qualified technically and in the area of general management, compared to their counterparts. Due to their better educational background and increased stress on democracy and socialism around, these people are also more achievement-oriented and equalitarian in terms of their value -orientations. They expect relatively more freedom at work and opportunity for participation in decision making and worth while contributions to the organization.

Both practitioners and management academics have started realizing the need to understand the problems of these people with a view to (a)avoid mounting frustration and discontent among them and its consequences and (b) to motivate them so that they realize their full potential on the job and contribution to productivity. Some of the top executives as well as scholars have shown concerns about this group. For instance, Ranganekar1 comments that “in many cases, the top management continues to put pressure on the middle management level to get results. However, the middle management is often unable to pass it as it is confronted with organized employees at the lowest level. In case of a serious conflict between the management and the workers, the middle management group finds squeezed between the two sides. The new manager at the junior and middle management level has often received some degree of management education. This has led him to expect participation in management decision making process. However, in actual life he finds himself as mere implementer of decisions arrived at without the benefit of his thinking- ‘a mere messenger of the real decision makers’ in the words of a middle manager.

Consequences of Discontent among Middle Managers
The discontent among junior and middle managers may lead to several dysfunctional kinds of behaviour on their part. They may express work behaviour characterized by apathy, lack of result-orientation, lack of responsibility, sense of alienation, rigidity, extreme rule-orientation, resistance to change and unreasonable demands for economic and other pecuniary incentives.

Many a times they organize themselves along the trade union lines for collective action. They bargain with the top management on conditions of employment and even resort to violence and other pressure tactics to get their demands considered2. In U.S.A the scholars have noted that the managerial frustration and discontent with corporate life are increasing and that the middle managers are tending towards formal and informal organisations which can collectively put pressure for job security, emoluments and more effective participation in management. In India, the top managements in many of the Indian organizations such as public sector and business enterprises are already facing threats on account of the formation of Supervisory and Officer’s Associations. Some top executives and scholars3 feel that the unionization among junior and middle managers will have far greater disastrous consequences to the organisation and this phenomenon cannot be viewed in the perspective in which it is viewed in the case of workers.

Motivation and Incentives
The organisations do not seem to be providing adequate number of both financial and non-financial incentives to the junior and middle managers. Indian studies on the motivation of managers and supervisors4 have revealed the absence of a number of incentives in their job5. The managers feel that their jobs are monotonous and that they are unable to test their skills and make use of their experience. They perceive that their jobs do not allow them sufficient freedom to take decisions. Nor do they provide them with opportunity for sharing adequate responsibility, learning and developing new skills. They also experience a sense of being left out of the main stream of organisational events due to inadequate communication and supportive feed -back of the information regarding their performance and that of others. These imply that the ways in which jobs and organisational practices are designed hardly provide the above kinds of satisfaction which are the real sources of motivation.

The jobs are normally designed according to the principles of task specialization and division of labour characterized as principles of Taylorism. The jobs that are at the bottom of the hierarchy are organized strictly along the above rational lines. The principles of Taylorism assumes the form of bureaucracy in the case of higher positions such as those of supervisors and managers. Job designs and associated practices along bureaucratic lines do not provide for socio-emotional and motivational pre-dispositions of the employees. They are unable to provide well-being of the employees. These designs are particularly inadequate in motivating junior and middle managers who seek freedom, responsibility, learning experience, challenge, opportunity for self expression and innovativeness on the job.

Emerging Need
Top management’s efforts to motivate people through wage and salary increases and welfare and fringe benefits are not as much rewarding in present times as it was before. There are several reasons for this. Some of these are; the incidence of direct taxation is so heavy that an increase in executives’ salaries beyond a level show diminishing returns in terms of take home pay. Again, the current rate of inflation is so high that any increase in monetary compensation hardly neutralizes the effects of inflation. This is applicable both to the executives and workers.

Even in the case on non-financial incentives to executives, top managements have been paying much attention to such as aspects as providing comfortable and attractive executive suits, standardizing personnel policies and practices, thereby reducing scope for adhocism, offering attractive designations (Director, vice-president etc) and other status symbols to the comparative neglect of providing conditions on the job for self -expression, i.e., by improving the intrinsic worth of the job5. At the worker level, the common practices are introduction of human relations in supervision, quick redressal of employee grievance, and employee conseling at the expense of making the jobs meaningful and challenging and promoting team spirit. A comprehensive motivational strategy which focuses on the content factors of jobs and which can be attempted both at the levels of managers and workers are ‘Job Design or Job Redesign’.

Essentially, there are two approaches adopted in designing jobs viz., (1) job enrichment approach suggested by Herzberg6 and his colleagues and (2) Socio-technical system approach developed by researchers from Tavistock School of Human Relations, London.

The underlying principle of socio-technical approach is to achieve congruence between work organisation and social organisation. According to this approach, it is necessary to organize the work in such way that the system permits full play of individual skills and nurtures their social needs.

Some scholars such as Herzberg,7 Taylor8 and so on have found out certain ways of making the immediate job environment conductive for this kind of intrinsic motivation. For instance, Herzberg9 suggests the following principles of job design and their motivational pay offs.

Taylor10 suggests the following ways to create motivating conditions on the job.

1. Providing Opportunity For Achievement.

a. Introduce new and difficult tasks not previously handled.
b. Allow employees to have a say in setting their objectives and targets for future action.
c. Provide positive standards against which results can be measured.
d. Give a complete unit of work which is meaningful and not too short in duration.
e. Allow as much autonomy as possible.
f. Opportunity to learn and increase knowledge and skills.

2. Recognition For Achievement
a. Assign individuals specific or specialized tasks enabling them to become expert;
b. Let individuals know how they are doing, praise for good work and guidance when work is not upto the standard.
c. Reward provided by the organization should depend on personal effort e.g. promotion and salary increase depending on personal effort e.g. promotional salary increase dependent (at least in part) on past successful performance.

3. Increased Responsibility
a. Show trust in employee by removing certain controls e.g. clocking in, continuous checking on their work.
b. Delegate to subordinates as much work and decision making authority as possible.
c. Increase the responsibility of the individuals for their own work responsibility for quality as well as quantity.
d. Provide additional authority to an employee in his activities.
e. Give an individual the chance to look after and develop others.
f. Encourage group inter-dependence and mutual help rather than reliance on outside supervision and technical assistance.

4. More Interesting Work
a. Provide variety of tasks;
b. Give individuals jobs which require thought and decisions;
c. Give employees an understanding of their contributions to the whole
d. Give individuals jobs they can improve.

Sl. No. Principle Motivators Involved
A. Removing some controls while retaining account ability. Responsibility and personal achievement.
B. Increasing the accountability of the individual for his own work. Responsibility and recognition.
C. Giving a person a complete natural unit of work (Module 8, division area and son on). Responsibility, achievement and recognition.
D. Granting additional authority to an employee in his activity (Job Freedom). Responsibility, achievement and recognition.
E. Making periodic reports directly available to the employee himself rather than to his supervisor. Internal recognition.
F. Introducing new and more difficult tasks not previously handled. Growth and learning.
G. Assigning individuals specific or specialized tasks, enabling them to become experts. Responsibility, growth and advancement.

Emerging Awareness
An awareness of the need on the part of the top managements to make the middle managerial jobs motivationally effective has developed in India recently. Four sources of evidence to this fact are forthcoming. First, some of the public sector companies have tried to institute certain motivationally effective organisational patterns. For instance, Engineering Projects India Limited11, engineering public sector concern known for its so called progressive management has adopted some of the following principles in the formulation of the functional organisational pattern.

- More clearly defined and undiluted responsibility
- Development of action without any constraints, to facilitate initiative and discretion at all levels of management.
- Faster decisions – decision points being closest to the work level and the problems.
- Concern for Motivation, better morale and greater involvement ant enthusiasm;

Therefore not tight controls are envisaged in the management philosophy of EPI. Controls are limited to the extent of getting feed-back results only.

Working in water-tight compartments which may inhibit the appreciation of working of other disciplines is considered against the management philosophy of EPI. Therefore, job rotation and inter-disciplinary transfers have been accepted in principle to be implemented based on individuals’ aptitudes and abilities.

Limited centralization by grouping the related functions has been considered due to ever increasing complexities in the technological fields and also to maintain good quality technical decisions and actions in specified areas. Limited centralization has also been considered desirable for overall co-operation through Management Information System by inter-meshing the multifarious activities of the company to attain the corporate objectives. Under Corporate Policy, it is also stated that the policy of EPI shall be to reward employees only on the basis of performance and not by seniority.

Second, a few years back six of the public sector undertaking12 initiated some internal work under ‘Action learning programme’ in the field of managerial motivation and related areas. This programme co-ordinated by Bureau of Public enterprises was stated in October 1975, lasted for 8 months or so. According to this programme, the managers of these enterprises set up study teams. They studied the motivational problems with the help of some resource persons from outside. This programme is initiated on the basis of the felt needs on the part of several top level public sector managers to understand and solve some of the motivational problems which stand in the way of utilizing highly skilled human resources.

Enriching Supervisory and Managerial Jobs.

Managerial and supervisory jobs can be made more motivating or challenging and meaningful by using the principles of job enrichment. For this the following methods can be used.

1. Role Analysis and Role Development: This helps development of clear cut understanding of duties, responsibilities, accountability and interface with other roles. It helps to link the individuals with the work groups and work groups with the organization.

2. Management by Objectives (or M.B.O): This involves identification of objectives, key result areas, target setting and formulating action strategies.

3. Management by Participation: Executives at all levels are involved in corporate, department and divisional level planning, target setting, monitoring and review.

4. Team Development and setting up Committees and Project Teams.

5. Instituting performance appraisal: Linked to employee training and career progression.
6. Continuous Training and Development: Training should be based on proper identification of the needs of the executives. Evaluation of the training outcomes on the job against objective criteria should also be done.

7. Providing employees fee back: Giving them data and information about their performance on a continuing basis reviewing subordinates’ performance in a supportive way and encouraging self-initiated review and giving them direct access to control data information are to be carried out. Generally control data and information are made available through quality control department or Accounts department or through the superiors (Departmental heads). Direct access to control data promotes internal control.

Review of performance should be targeted towards small groups or project teams rather than individual, where the task is projected as a common task and the attention of the members are called upon to how to improve the task as a whole, rather than grilling the individuals for their deficiencies. In the process, the members should be encouraged to identify the areas in which they think they need training and development and also to seek training opportunities largely by themselves, instead of the conventional method of identification of training needs of the subordinates by their boss. The boss plays only a supportive role in this. He through his discussions and involvements of his subordinates in the work makes them realize the need for further development to exploit opportunities lying ahead. Thus seeking training is voluntary and attractive and no stigma of personal weakness is attached to training as is done normally. Training and development is positive and people should look for it as a part of their career aspirations and to fulfill their desires for challenging and fuller work life.

Such open culture of learning and development is required to meet the challenges of modernization. This can be developed by including this as one of the criteria for appraising their performance effectiveness. The superiors can ask the question whether their subordinates realize and articulate their needs for training and development while assessing their effectiveness.

The other side of the coin is that the superiors should take responsibility for the career progression of their subordinates and should prepare them. Generally, management succession especially at higher levels such as the Heads of the Departments is not planned properly with the result a ‘sort of vacuum’ is created; when too many people retire at the same time.
8. All the persons at the managerial and supervisory level should be informed about the organisational stream of activities including corporate plans, industrial relations matters, information related to business environment etc.,

9. Instituting ‘Flash light’ awards, apart from linking the traditional rewards such as salary increases, promotions etc to performance results. Some of the ‘flash light awards are:-

- Commendation letters from the Chief Executives,
- Honours (like the best team of the year),
- Honouring people in specially arranged functions, presentation of selected books in the area of their specialization, interest and performance and result areas,
- Nomination them as delegates to attend conferences,
- Nomination them as Experts in Committees set up both inside the company and outside, and
- Nominating them to visit outside educational institutions as Faculty Members with due support from the company side. For this, the company should develop liaison with educational and other institutions to which the company can contribute with its practical knowledge and expertise. By this arrangement, the company while motivating its executives would also be discharging a part of their social responsibility. Industrial association with educational institutions make the latter better and socially useful.

The distinctive feature of these category of rewards is that they do not invoke the kind of rivalry feelings which the traditional rewards invoke, as these are not ‘status symbols’ but ‘symbols of achievements’. These rewards have tremendous motivation potential, provided the management can explore the possibilities and implement them imaginatively.

Currently, even those executives who draw fabulous salaries and perks still look for more with no sign of reaching saturation of their desires. The administration of ‘flash light’ rewards should reverse this trend and should wean the executives from the so called ‘money culture’.

Survey of practices in Indian companies shows that some of the methods the companies are using in the area of enriching managerial and supervisory jobs are Role Analysis, M.B.O, Team Development, Performance Appraisal and career development, setting up of committees, Training and Development and so on.

Job design at the Shop Floor Level
Some attempts in designing jobs at the workers’ level using socio-technical approaches, have been made in Indian work organisations.

For example, Late. Prof. Nitish De13 and Prof. Einor Thorsrud helped Bharat Heavy Electricals, one of the largest Indian Public Enterprises to undertake job re-design work in one of their units. They selected a group of workers from the plant side and divided them into two groups, each group was responsible for a whole task. Before, they were working in an assembly like set up, each producing a part of the equipment. From the members of both groups, a task force was formed consisting of permanent members and temporary members every month to give chance to every one. There is considerable freedom and participation in production process both for task group also for the members of the work group.

The task group received overall targets from the management. It broke it into sub-targets, planned the requirements of materials, tools and equipment. The persons in the work group rotated their jobs to develop multi-skills. The first stage inspection for quality was done by the group and only final inspection was done by quality control department. The task force members, identified the training needs of the members and necessary training was imparted by the training department. Task force met to settle issues and reviewed progress in production. Many desirable effects followed from this work arrangement. Some of these were: supervisors role underwent change from chasing ‘workers’ to chasing work factors, as the workers were more responsible for their work. The boredom from the job was removed. Employees had an improved feeling of ownership of work, enjoyed quality of work life and were committed to their work and productivity.

References
1. Sharu S. Rangnekar: Middle Management in Search of Identity, Paper Published in the Proceedings of the Conference-cum-Seminar of Officers’ Associations, Bombay, June 3, 1973, 10-15

2. Also See: Dayal, Ishwar and Sharma, Baldev, R.Strike of Supervisory Staff in State Bank of India, Bombay, Progressive Corporation 1971.; A.Sreekumar Menon. Management Unionism in Indian Business and industry in Case Problems of Industrial Relations Edited by Suri, G.K Bhargav, K.New Delhi, Shir Ram Centre for Industrial Relations; A Sreekumar Menon, Management, Managerial Unionism in Indian Business and Industry and its Management. Lok Udyog, April 1975; Sharu S.Rangekar,op.cit.; Sreevastava, B.K.Management of Organisational Conflict, Decision, April 1974,

3. See Sharu S.Rangnekar.op.cit.

4. Laxmi Narain. Managerial Compensation and Motivation in Public Enterprises, New Delhi, Oxford & IBH, 1973.; Sinha J.B.P. “Some problems of Public Sector Organisations, Delhi, National 1973; Maule H and Ganguli, T.A. Study of Management Morale in a Private Sector Undertaking , Bombay, Central Labour Institute, Industrial Psychology Division, Report No.3, 1965; Ganguly, D.N. Impact of Management Systems on Morale, Productivity and Industrial Relations. Bombay, central Labour Insitute, 1974.

5. See Harzberg F., Mausner B., and SyndermanB., The Motivation to work Second Edition, New York, Wiley, 1959.

6. Herzberg.F One more time: How do you motivate employees Harward Business Review, Jan-Feb. 1968.

7. op.cit.

8. TaylorL.K. Not forbread alone, in Human and Industrial Relations. Working Hand Book, London, Kluwar-Harrap Handbooks.

9. Herzberg.F. op.cit.

10. Taylor, L.K. op.cit.

11. Corporate policy and Organisational pattern Engineering Project India.

12. A Circular from Chairman’s Office, Indian Oil Corporation Limited on Action Learning Programme. The author associated with this Programme as a resource person in the field of Organisational Behaviour.

13. As reported by Prathasarathi and S.S.Rao in their paper entitled Human Resource Development in Bhel in T.V.Rao, K.K.Verma, Anil.K.Khandewal and E.Abraham S.J. (eds) Alternative Approaches and Strategies of Human Resources Development, Jaipur, Rawat Publication, 1988.

RIGHT WAY OF CONDUCTING MEETINGS

2005-02-03T04:41:00.000-08:00

RIGHT WAY OF CONDUCTING MEETINGS

Dr.A.Sreekumar Menon

Psychologist, Specialist in Management Science and Author of Award Winning Management Books

Countless number of meetings is held in organisations. Daily, weekly or monthly meetings of the members of the staff are convened by the heads of the departments for various purposes. People think that any one who is holding the positions of senior managers or departmental/section heads can conduct meetings successfully without special knowledge of the right methods of conducting meetings, the knowledge of which contributed by Behavioural Sciences.

It is because of the casual way of conducting the meetings, most of the meetings are not productive and employees lack faith in them. Meetings are sometimes perceived as strategies to postpone an action on an issue. There is a general feeling shared by people that the meetings are time wasters. It robs off one’s time, which could otherwise be spent on productive work. If one were to calculate the direct and indirect costs incurred by the organisation, in terms of the salary paid to the employees for the time, they spent on meetings and over heads, the figure will be staggering. This is in addition to the ill effects of poorly conducted meetings on the motivation and morale of employees.

Before examining the dynamics of staff meetings, let us see, what some of the senior scientists working in one of the largest and premier organisations to say about meetings. The following are their typical reactions.

“The staff/Group meetings called to discuss scientific and technical aspects have been rewarding. Research council meetings are rewarding to the extent that we come to know the various aspects of research being carried out and progress made but, the input and contribution from the members to enlarge the horizon of thinking and work are rather disappointing”.

“Meetings are definitely useful, however decisions taken will have to be implemented”.

“Intra-institutional meetings could achieve more if digression is minimized, if not eliminated and decisions are arrived on the basis of discussions at the meeting and not before”.

“They have both positive and negative aspects.

Positive Aspects – They serve to consolidate ideas on the part of the participants. Some times, advantageous group can crystallize on decisions.

Negative Aspect – no full justice can be done to the programme being discussed. Many times, discussion wander to unconnected matters and trivialities, wasting time. They are mostly conducted as rituals. Much importance is not attached (rightly) to the remarks, or recommendations are not carried out”.

“I have mixed feelings about the said meetings. I get the impression that we often tend to over-discuss the issues. Related to this impression is my concern (and some times pain) about the long durations of time spent on discussions. If we can only speedily implement decisions arrived at the meetings and see to it that the programme chalked out (whatever) are actually executed, our meetings, despite their being too frequent and of large numbers of kinds, will not be in vain”.

“I sincerely feel that meetings of people with varied background and experience, if planned, arranged and taken seriously will be the most effective way of taking reasonable and practical decisions on various matters concerning own institute. Unfortunately, the present day reality is that even convening a meeting is becoming very difficult due to various reasons. Most of the meetings are arranged in a hurry. There are little interactions from most of the participants and follow up is practically nil. The most important is that we do not have a mechanism to monitor and enforce decisions taken collectively from time to time. Under the façade of democratic working, the most elementary principle of accountability is being side lined and I feel that this has to be rectified, if we are to achieve anything through meetings”.

“Meetings take longer time and therefore concerned matters should be discussed preferably in a group having 4-5 members who are directly concerned with the discussion”.

“Staff/Group/Research Council meetings are useful most of the time. For:

I. Positive feelings:
1. “It gives an opportunity to evaluate one’s performance, provided one has scientific attitude. It also provides chance for others to evaluate one’s work”.

II. Negative feeling
“Many a time, such meetings fail to achieve the goal of evaluating the work for the following reasons:
i) Lack of focus on the identified problem, leading to rambling courses of collective thinking.
ii) Lack of scientific temperament in sorting out personal prejudice from scientific critical evaluation”.

1) “Due to lack of time, many important issues receive insufficient attention. A very thorough discussion problem-wise is necessary”.

2) “A lot of careful preparation should precede presentation. A two page document should be prepared, for final decision making, explaining clearly the concepts. Attempts should be made to quantify the proposal and it should have passed through policy (overall) considerations already and its feasibility should be established by well known criteria”.
3) “Basic work deserves special consideration and should be discussed in separate session altogether. The technological research (basically developmental) needs more scrutiny and relevance and consolidation at the institute level”.

“ I find that (1) the meetings consisting of scientists in the age group of 30-40 (but chaired by a slightly elderly scientist, endowed with gifts of patience and listening capacity, as also brief, yet meaningful interaction) are extremely business like and are characterized by productive exchange of view points, interspersed with scientific and technological data (2) younger scientists carefully chosen(here tremendous responsibility rests with managements to abjure personal likes and dislikes) enables to get best out of the scientists”.

Objectives of the Staff Meetings
Generally, staff meetings are arranged to plan, review, monitor or report progress on work; consult employees on organisational issues, involve employees in making decisions for better prospects of implementation; share with employees organisational information and utilize collective knowledge, skills and experience to examine problems from different angles in solving them innovatively. A staff meeting may serve one or more of the above goals. Because, a meeting can serve such multiple goals, there is always the possibility of expectations of the members (employees) coming in conflict with those who conduct the meetings. For instance, the participants may feel that the success of the meeting is the Chairman’s responsibility and hence, they may play a casual role in the meeting. They may not give prior thought to the agenda items and prepare before coming to the meetings. Even during the meeting they may not show seriousness in their participation. They may take the meeting in a lighter vein, and socialize or they may remain as silent members. They may not think deeply and contribute to the discussions thus their participation may be superficial. No serious exchange of thoughts and views may take place.

Another type of conflict that might occur is on the degree of influence, the participants can exert in making decisions on issues discussed in the meeting. For instance, the top-management may convene a staff meeting to consult with the employees on issues before formulating a policy, the decision on which the management might consider as its prerogative. The employees, on the other hand, may want to influence decisions and formulate a policy jointly. Consequently, they may lose their interest in the meeting when they find that the chairman is not accommodating their views and ideas.

Thus, in order to set proper tone of the meetings, the chairman should make its clear to the members right in the beginning, the extent to which they can influence the decisions on issues brought in for discussion in the meeting. It is still better to develop a prior mutual understanding between the top management and the employees regarding the authority shared by different levels in making decisions on different organisational issues. Such consensus enable the members to develop realistic expectations regarding their authority and in turn, makes staff meetings organizationally productive and satisfying to the members. Many times, the particular chairman and even the top management do not possess such clarity in understanding and they have to make special efforts towards it.

What are Staff meetings for?
Staff meeting are participatory forums used for communication and group influence, with a view to improve accountability and work commitment of people. Through well run meetings, the chairman can help the members to meet their socio-psychological needs such as belonging, involvement and acceptance. In the hands of management, meetings are powerful tools for motivating and getting the best out of the staff.

Thus, the departmental heads, who conduct the meetings, should be aware of these possible advantages of the meetings and should strive to realize them. They should not consider staff meetings simply as a convenient forum to meet large number of people in one place and they should not take it, as yet another occasion to ‘show off’ their status and power or create ‘yes men’ or show pearls of their wisdom.

Regularity of Staff Meetings and the Agenda
It is advisable to hold regular meetings of the staff committee, with special effort to generate sufficient items of ‘agenda’ for consideration. Of course, there is no point in holding meetings every month without having much to discuss. The seriousness of the meetings or the value attached by employees to the meetings gets lost, without sufficient matter for deliberations.

In the case of work planning and review meeting, agenda items can be suggested by the employees, in addition to those selected by top management. Agenda is the programme of business. It should be circulated among the members sufficiently in advance. The purpose of circulating the agenda in advance is to give member to go through the items in advance and do whatever preparation is necessary, before attending, enabling them to offer helpful comments during the meeting. The members can also know what is going to be discussed and thus, they have something to look for and thus get motivated to attend the meeting.

Making advance preparation and taking staff meetings seriously should be inculcated as a habit and norm among all employees. This could be achieved by the chief executive by personal example. If he takes the meetings seriously, others are likely to follow the suit. Again, there is, perhaps, nothing wrong in warning those employees, who take meetings casually. If the chairman himself fumbles on the agenda he is setting a bad example for others to follow. This happens when the chairman is ‘position conscious’, poses to be ‘busy’, lacks conference/leadership skills and ‘faith’ in the democratic principles underling in meetings.

A meeting is a dynamic situation of inter-personal interactions aimed towards achieving certain common goals. In the meetings, there is need to attend to two kinds of behaviours, viz., task-related behaviour and behaviour-related to group maintenance (or maintenance of interpersonal relations). Task-related factors are those helpful for achieving the goals of the meeting. Some examples of task-related behaviours are keeping one’s attention focused on the problems/issues in hand, rather than digressing or going off the track; speaking by listening to each other rather than ‘talking to one self; building on each other’s ideas, doing penetrative thinking and analysis of the people, actively and enthusiastically participating in discussions, seeking and offering ideas; enriching discussions, summarising etc.

Some of the examples of interpersonal behaviours are listening to each other’s ideas with attention ,showing interest and empathy rather than causing interruption, allowing all members to speak rather than one or more members holding the floor too long; recognition of each other’s contributions; building on each other’s sense of importance (self esteem) rather than trying to belittle; reacting to other’s ideas based on logic and reasoning rather than based on personal bias, prejudice and rivalry and so on. It can be seen that some of the interpersonal behaviours stated above are healthy and positive and hence, contribute to productivity of the meetings and member satisfaction, while others are unhealthy and negative and hence, they undermine productivity of the meetings and the member’s satisfaction.

The chairman should attend not only to task - related behaviours, but also to behaviour of inter-personal relations which promote harmony in interpersonal relationships. He should encourage the positive behaviours and discourage negative ones.

Similarly, he should encourage the members to encourage the positive behaviours and discourage negative ones displayed by their colleagues. In other words, the atmosphere created should make the members feel this responsibility.

The Role of the Chairman
The chairman should be of friendly nature and a good mixer. He should not see himself a person there to direct and control group activities. The feeling that he is there to control the group may give him some ‘ego satisfaction’, but, hinders group productivity and member satisfaction’. He should feel that he is there as a guide, catalyst, motivator and synthesizer (or co-ordinator) of group efforts. He should feel that he is a man who provides the right kind of atmosphere for the meeting, in which creative and social instincts of the members find full expression.

He should play the role of ‘controller’ of the group activities and that of ‘information giver’, (their role of expert) only when the situation demands. He should do it on the strength of his wide knowledge, vision and breadth of understanding and as person who is not emotionally involved in arguing out his case. When he tries to argue out his case, he fails to appreciate richness of ideas, contributed by other members. Thus, he should not be a person with rigid notions and having a ‘one track mind’. He should be attentive to what others say. He should not show any idiosyncrasies and mannerisms while in the meeting such as learning on the table, toying with gem clips etc, which divert the concentration of the members. These do not inspire confidence among the members.

He should speak clearly and softly as one would hold a normal and friendly conversion. For making judgement, he should seek for facts, information and logic rather than go by personal notions and pre-dispositions. He should have a good knowledge of the problems under discussion and should be quick and clear in understanding the diverse ideas expressed by the members (the so called ability for comprehension)

The chairman should encourage the members to attentively listen to and build on each other’s ideas, analyze the problems, express ideas that differ from others freely and frankly, participate actively throughout the meeting, contribute new ideas and new lines of thinking and approaches to the problems and show mutually helpful attitudes.
He should also discourage tactfully the display of negative behaviours by the members such as monopolizing the discussions, obstructing the progress of the meetings by frequent interruptions , going off the track, reacting to ideas of others and attacking each other, motivated by personal bias, rivalry and conflict.

The members should also be trained to develop assuming responsibility for encouraging positive and discouraging negative behaviours among themselves. In other words, the group as a whole should be made responsible for the conduct and productive behaviour of its members, by using a ‘group - centered’ leadership by the chairman. The group as a whole should be encouraged to gain some control over the behavior of individual members.

The chairman should not exert ‘too tight’ control over the meeting. He should not make his intentions clear or monopolise conversation and fail to encourage discussions. He should not communicate matters without allowing the members to express their views on them. Similarly he should not decide and announce his decision on matters, on the other hand decide either in consultation or jointly with the members.

He should see that the participation is widely distributed in the group. Few members should not do talking all the time. He should encourage every member to speak. No member, who wants to speak should be deprived of his chance. Similarly, the discussions should not be prematurely closed and no idea from any member should be rejected without giving a fair hearing and thorough examination.

Chairman of the meeting, who is generally a senior member should not throw his weight of authority around. Some times, his style of conducting the meetings may make the members feel that he does not tolerate other’s views and ideas and that he expects them to support his ideas as a mark of personal loyalty. Accordingly, some members may echo his word, others may withdraw and be silent and yet others may remain resentful overtly or covertly. When more members echo his words, he may go away with the false notion that he and the members have similar views and that the meeting went off well.

For the meeting to be productive, the chairman should create an atmosphere of equality in the group. He should make every member feel that he is important as any other member, including the chairman. No status hierarchy or pecking order should be allowed to develop. He should build up confidence and courage of the members for giving social support and appreciating their views and ideas. He should see that no one belittle another. He should on the other hand, encourage a climate of openness, care and mutual trust.

The chairman should not always insist that the members should talk logically and only to the point and suppress feelings and emotions. When persons speak with strong feelings, their interest in the subject grows.
He should summarise the discussions, periodically to keep the focus of the group on the objectives and make visible to all members the steady progress of the meeting.

He should keep the overall attention of the group focused on the business of the meetings, while at the same time, not sticking too rigidly to the agenda. sufficient scope should be given for the members for through exploration and analysis of the problems and to look at them from different angles .

While allowing scope for discussions, the chairman should also check the long winded talkers, constrain interrupters and those who go off the track and thus, maintain control over time. He should ensure that the meeting moves with normal speed and cover all the items on the agenda equally well, without having hurry through any of them.

Nothing is as a bad as the meeting, in which the group has to hurry through some items and which is to be closed prematurely. In such case, the members may lack sense of progress, and accomplishment which are some of the human needs that crave for expression. Thus, the chairman has to keep a delicate balance between allowing members participation and emotional involvement, on the one hand and control over time on the other.

The chairman can use the following methods to retain control over time. First, he should check digressions tactfully, Second, the members should be trained to put across their ideas precisely and pointedly. The chairman himself should speak to the point. When the members find the chairman himself appreciating the value of their time, they automatically plan the most economic use of their time. Third, the chairman can also encourage the group to check the digression of members, which is more effective. Fourth, Digressions can be minimized by reminding the members periodically about the agenda and by summarizing the discussions to each other and building on each other’s ideas rather than allowing them to go off the track. Active listening to each other’s idea save time, by avoiding repetitions and misunderstandings followed by clarifications. Confusion and misunderstanding also hinder member participation, enthusiasm and contribution. In addition, active listening to other’s ideas and views is a good habit and make the persons listened to feel that they are accepted and important and to develop favourable dispositions towards others.

The chairman should enthuse or activate the group in their deliberations throughout the meeting, by himself being an active listener and participant. He should check the aggressive members from dominating conversation and particularly encourage shy and silent members. Then, there are other members who are disinterested, He should convert their apathy into concern and involvement through positive motivation. In short, the chairman should develop what is called ‘Creative tension’. He should watch the development of creative tension and release it, before it wares out the members thus keeping it always at the optimum levels. He can use the ‘technique of questioning’ to provoke thinking by members.

The chairman should discourage the tendency of members to form groups and take sides. When members form groups with in groups, they support or oppose each other’s ideas based on their likes and dislikes rather than on facts. This is called hidden agenda. He should see that the focus of attention of members is on problems and issues on hand and not on exchange of personal remarks against each other. Sometimes, the encounters assume such serious proportions. This can happen when the chairman starts to lose control over the meetings. If the chairman himself is open and objective in conducting the meeting and if he is watchful of such behaviour, the members may refrain from such acts. Many a time, the chairman who is pre-occupied with the agenda or who lacks skills in human relations may not notice such disruptive member behaviours and may not be able to nip them in the bud. He may be taken back when the meeting derails.

It is a fact that if employees show a general lack of mutual confidence and trust and openness in their day to day work relationships, they are likely to display same behaviour in the meetings and that they cannot be expected to be matured members. In fact, the behaviour of the employees during the meetings give a reliable clue to the quality of interpersonal behaviour or human relationships existing in an organisation. Hence, meetings are used as starting points in bringing about proper interpersonal climate in the organisation as an O.D. (organisation development) strategy.
People look for knowledge about the consequences of their actions. This is called the ‘desire for knowledge of results’ (or the desire for feed back). It is one of the most powerful needs which crave for expression and fulfillment.. This feedback enables the persons to know that that his actions are purposeful or have some direction, the experience of which enthuse them for action.
In the context of staff meetings, this need is expressed as the desire on the part of members for knowledge of the outcome of the meetings and particularly about their participation. They receive such information through two sources. Viz., 1) directly from the task (also called task or Intrinsic feedback) and 2) Feedback from others. In the context of the meetings, the members receive direct feed back, when they find their contributions in the meetings are welcome and accepted.
They receive feed back from other sources when
- their doubts are clarified
- the discussions throw sufficient light on the issues raised by them
- their ideas are listened to, appreciated and, given due weightage by chairman and members and utilized in making decisions.
- The decisions taken are clear cut, in the sense of specifying clearly what they are and who should do what.
- The progress of implementation of decisions taken in meeting is reviewed in subsequent meetings.

Thus, the chairman should review the progress of the previous meetings. This is called the follow-up action. The employees can be made more accountable of their actions, if the task implementation is enforced in the setting of the meetings.
In contrast to the tight control described earlier, some chairman who lacks conference skills may keep a ‘loose control’ over the meetings, which again, is equally unproductive. Under this style, the chairman does not hold the attention of the members focused on the objectives of the meetings, and facilitate the progress of the meetings towards the goals. The meeting is loosely structured and it is allowed to drift without any specific focus. Members hardly listen to each other and get into long and wasteful discussions and controversies. Arguments go round and round. No attempt is made to see each other’s points and a no consolidation of thoughts and ideas takes place. Lengthy discussions take place without reaching any conclusions. The thoughts and ideas expressed may be superficial and may not be creative. Members may encounter with each other on personal grounds, rather than on the merit of the case. Such meetings do more harm than good, both for the organisations and for the individual.
Thus, it is clear that a chairman should not attempt either ‘too tight’ or too loose control over the meeting.. On the other hand he should exercise only moderate control. Infact, he should move with this medium range towards either side, depending upon the educational background and maturity of the members and the type of meetings, whether it is consultative, participative, brain storming (creative problem solving) etc. Apart from exerting control, he should also encourage all members to behave in ways necessary for the success of the meetings.

The Role of Participants
The participants have as much responsibility as the chairman for the success of the meeting. In other words, ‘chairmanship’ and the positions of participants complement each other. Just like a chairman should ask himself as to how he can became an effective chairman, the members should ask themselves as to how they can become effective participants. An effective chairman is equally an effective participant, although an effective participant need possess some additional leadership skills to become effective chairman. Both the chairman and the members stand to gain from well run meetings. As well attended meeting are lasting source of satisfaction, whereas poor meetings make the people disinterested in meetings. To identify the proper roles, the participants will have to play in taking meetings to success and these roles can be learned. The following are some of the examples of attitudes and behaviour of effective participants.
1. They should feel that it is equally their responsibility to work for the success of the meetings.
2. Instead of showing lack of interest and concern and apathetic attitude towards the meetings (thinking nothing worth while comes out of it), they should be actively interested and emotionally involved in meetings and should develop faith in the value of the meeting. They should realize that the value of the meetings is what they make out of it. They should take the meetings seriously. Advance preparation, listening attentively, making use of each other’s ideas, participating actively and putting all their efforts in the meetings are required.
3. Each member should help to create an atmosphere of warmth, acceptance and support to every other member. Members should build up each other’s self-importance or worth or self esteem, and should not belittle any one.
4. No member should monopolise the discussions or hold the floor too long preventing other members, particularly less aggressive ones to speak, on the other hand, he should give opportunity to every member to participate and contribute. Acts of encouraging the members to contribute are as valuable as expression of new ideas or solution of a problem.
5. He should listen attentively to others and build on other’s ideas based on merit rather than ignoring them.
6. He should learn to express ideas and views which are different from those expressed by others, tactfully, i.e., without offending them and accept ideas from others without being defensive. Targeting criticism towards the problems and issues under discussions, rather than towards the persons, help giving and receive criticisms.
7. While expressing differences or entering into controversies caution should be exercised not to press differences too hard and ignore points of agreements. In other words, one should not let lose competitive spirit at the cost of accommodative spirit. Competition helps to break the issues to finer elements but ultimately it is the consensus that should prevail.
8. Each member should help in starting and ending the meeting with normal speed and coverage, by setting his mind on the goals. Taking into consideration the size of the group, and the nature of the meetings, he should think how much participation is feasible and prepare for the right kind and degree of participation. He should learn to put across his ideas and views clearly logically and directly. He should plan and organize his thoughts, ideas and mode of expression (language).
9. He should avoid covering the ground already covered by others, by repeating their statements. At the same time, he should keep continuity of the discussions, by linking his ideas with those expressed by others. In other words, he would make his statements in proper context and enable progress in discussions.
10. He should keep track of the progress of the discussions, with out missing links. He is able to do this, only if he keeps an open mind in the meetings, his mind relaxed (not getting worked up emotionally), and developing clarity in understanding.
11. Each member should keep a check over his negative emotions. It is a natural temptation to find fault with others and get offended by other’s remarks, unless one guards against it. He should allow the free play of his creative instincts and encourage the same among his fellow participants.

Thus, the participants have many and varied roles and responsibilities in making staff meetings a success.
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2005-01-26T05:28:00.000-08:00

DEVELOPING READING SKILLS
Dr.A.Sreekumar Menon

Psychologist, Specialist in Management Science and Author of Award Winning Management Books

Reading is a complex skill, which is usually acquired at school. After graduation, people may not generally make conscious effort to cultivate and practice good reading habit or to improve upon the reading habit, which one has already acquired.

There are other media like speaking and listening, cinema, T.V. etc. which are more dynamic and which compete with the time people would like to spend on reading, although much of the information and knowledge, which we acquire in our day to day life and those which stay in our memory for longer time are acquired through reading. Tests of retention have shown that after a three day interval, people recall 10% of information received by seeing and 65 percent of information, though reading.

There are different types of readers. Some take to reading as pastime i.e., for enjoyment or entertainment. They take to reading for its emotional appeal. Some read the materials attentively for the sake of being informed or for acquiring new knowledge about the world around us. Others read for improving their understanding or general awareness of events. Knowledge is power. Appropriate actions often require understanding of the events and situations.

Some persons do not practice reading. They don’t read systematically and regularly for developing current awareness or to keep abreast of current developments. How many of us are using reading as a tool to acquire knowledge and understand a situation? Very few, perhaps. The reason being that reading like others is an art and needs some skills and practice.

In our modern life, we are flooded with information. The percent age is rightly called as an age of information and knowledge explosion. In order to cope up with this knowledge explosion, we would develop proper reading skills-which can be learned through guided practice – practice applying the knowledge of what constitutes good reading or how to achieve functional efficiency in reading.

Managers and administrators use reading and writing as tools of communication in their work. They prepare memos (memoranda), circulars, letters to outside clients, prepare reports of progress of development projects etc. These writings may take the form of instructions from above, instructions to their subordinates, communication to their colleagues and reply to applicants etc. They can develop a close familiarity with their work and the work that is going on in other department/office, by reading and understanding the written communication systematically.

Daily several circulars come to the office. Officers glance through them and mark them to the concerned Case worker/Assistant. They may not care to read, understand and keep track of the information that is flowing in and out of their tray. They may think that it is the duty of the Case worker to read. The Case worker may neatly file the circulars and stack them in their steel almirahs for ever. Sometimes, when information is required on a particular matter, they may vaguely remember that particular information is available in such circular. When they seek that information, their staff may or may not be able to trace it or lay their hands on it.

The Assistants draft letters. Some officers sign the letters without going through them personally. While the typed matter is before them, they ask the Case workers about the contents of the letter and sign at the place, shown by them. Thus, these officers are not in touch with what is going on in their offices and they are at the mercy of their subordinates. As there is very little understanding of the matters that are processed in the office, the work pertaining to a section is at a stand still and the officer can give no reply, if the Assistant dealing with that section is on leave.

If the officers should have control over the administration, they should continuously develop awareness of the development through systematic reading and understanding of circulars and other communications and build up body of information. In other words, development of good reading skills is a quality of good and efficient administrators. They should work against the normal apathy towards reading and develop a good reading habit. If one has all the information on his finger tips, so to say, he is more confident in his work and is able to have better control over his subordinates. Reading with comprehension or understanding, which needs conscious self-discipline keeps one mentally alert, keeps away from the boredom of office routine, develops intellectual curiosity (the desire to know) and even the tendency to innovate, in addition to improving one’s, writing skill.

Not all our reading is to be carried out with the same objectives or at a uniform speed or in same depth of comprehension. For instance, an Administrator, who is studying a professional matter, say project document is likely to be concentrating intensively on the subject matter. On the other hand, he may only glance through certain circulars to get a bare understanding of the matter contained in them. Or he may look at the matter in a given subject and mark for the concerned Assistant. Alternatively, he may read the circulars carefully and make a mental note of the summary of the information contained in the circular and consolidate it with the information acquired on the subject before. His knowledge of the subject makes him more interested in reading the circulars containing information on the same subject. One may casually glance through a written material sticking to specific items that interest him for example: to find out who are the players in a cricket match and the score.

Some people do selective reading i.e., to answer certain questions, or searching for specific items of information, while ignoring the rest.

Some people read for enjoyment. For instance, we are absorbed in a story. We may or may not remember the story later. We may not think of the moral behind the story or about the message, the author wants to convey. As a rule, one should develop the habit of concentrated reading.

There are different modes of reading such as the following:

1. Skimming: This is a method of reading extensively and superficially. It is effective in selecting references required at once or getting a very general outline of the substance of a passage.

For a longer report or book, skimming may begin with a quick glance through a table of contents, a list of chapters or headings and sub-headings. It may continue with a search for the main themes and ideas, picking out key passages.

2. Scanning: A lot of our reading is of this kind. Filling of reference is an example. The identify of the reference is known to the reader and he is looking for it in a written record.

When the reference is found in logical sequence either alphabetical, numerical or chronological, spotting out the required material is easy. On the other hand, scanning a random series of references/materials is more arduous task.

3. Comprehending the full meaning of the material in depth as found appropriate.

4. Reading for study which demand intense attention and effort for comprehension.

5. Critical Scrutiny: The reader asks questions, meanings, challenges statements and inferences, seeks further information from other sources and compares it with other writings on the subject. For example:
One makes critical scrutiny in the following cases:
- appraising the financial feasibility of a project for sanctioning loan (processing loan applications)
- reading a project proposal for giving comments.
- going through progress report pertaining to a project to assess how satisfactory is its implementation.

Effective reading involves a combination of speed as well as comprehension, both at the optimum levels. The saying ‘I am a slow reader, but I really remember, what I read’ has been disproved time and again.

An efficient reader reads with reasonable speed without sacrificing comprehension or understanding. How do you rate yourself as a reader? Do you read 200 words per minute, which is poor 250 words per minute, which is average or 400 and above which is excellent.

Rapid reading is not hurried reading. The objective of rapid reading is to read faster, read better and to reduce the time taken to read any particular material consistent with comprehension. Putting it differently, it means reading efficiently more matter within a particular time without impairing comprehension.

Reading consists basically of eye movements and the activity of the brain. While reading, the eyes move along a line of print, in a definite rhythm, making a series of stops (called fixations about the same number of times on each line, pausing about the same length of time at each fixation and swinging back to the next line, like the carriage on a Typewriter. In other words, the eyes fix for an instant on one point, take in the impressions, jump to the second point, fix for the impressions from the page, jump forward to a third, fix there and so on.

When we read passage made up of words, we start at the left of the line of print and move to the right in a series of short jumps, each of them lasting only a few hundredths of a second.

At the end of each line, there is necessarily a longer jump back to the start of the next line, but in the whole process nine-tenth of the time goes in fixations and less than one tenth in movements.

During each fixation, eye takes in impressions of individual word or a group of words. The number of impressions of words which eye cam take in, in a single glance (fixation) is called span of comprehension. More is number of words, wider the span. The pause for each fixation is called the ‘speed of comprehension’ – that is the time the brain take to sense the meaning of the words within the span. The process by which brain interprets the meaning of words is called perception. From these we understand that the reading efficiency depends upon-
i) span of comprehension or perceptual field,
ii) speed of comprehension of perceptual speed,
iii) number of fixations and
iv) speed of moving ahead (forward)

Reading improvements can be made by eliminating the time wasted in making untrained eye movements and accustom the brain to take in at a glance a larger group of words.

Our ability to take in maximum number of words at a single glance and sense their meaning can come by practice. For this we can follow the following exercise.

We should start the following exercise by finding out what our present speed is-
Read the pages of book that interests you for exactly three minutes. Read with the purpose of comprehending and at the same time with as much speed as one can. At the end of the three minutes, determine rate per each minute, by getting an average number of words in a line multiplying by the number of lines one has read and dividing by three. Test one comprehension by finding out how many major points in the passage one can recall, immediately after reading.

On the second day, repeat this with increase in speed.

Initially, emphasize speed, not worrying about comprehension. That will come later. Test periodically the level of comprehension. If it falls too low, concentrate a little more on meaning. Interest and motivation and very essential.

Other Factors which slow down Reading
The following are some of the other factors which slow down reading. These are:

1. Regression: is looking back every now and then at something already read. It is like stepping backwards after every few meters, hardly a way to move ahead quickly. The more regressions (moving back) one makes, the slower one’s reading. Regression may be because of:-
- fatigue
- habit
- lack of concentration with other matters
- lack of confidence
- preoccupation with other matters
- actual missing of meanings of some words or phrases
- poor memory due to lack of attention
- because of the nature of reading material –long winding sentences (sentence structure with too many subordinates clauses attached to main sentence).
- Weak vocabulary (too little knowledge of the material being read)

Regression affects both reading speed and comprehension. It affects speed as it increases the number of eye movements. In order to check this, one should be attentive and keep forcing oneself to move ahead.

If passages seem vague or hazy in meaning, one should move on. These can be clarified later or one may come back to them at the end, when one has general meaning. When one practices this technique, his comprehension will suffer a bit, but when the habit of moving forward is firmly established, he will gain. We should postpone looking up unfamiliar words, till reading is over. Jumping back and forth from dictionary to reading interrupts comprehension. One should check the unfamiliar words and look them up later.

2. Vocalization: Another factor which breaks the speed of reading is vocalizing (Pronouncing the words to ourselves as we read). In the beginning, we are taught to pronounce words, even letters. Traces of this habit often persists. Vocalizing even at the lip level reduce reading speed. To see if we do this, we put a finger over own lips as we should keep a memory jogging finger on our lips we read.

Vocalizing at the voice box level is far more common and much less obvious. This can be checked by placing out thumb and fore fingers lightly on our throat at each side of our vocal box. We may feel faint movements, to rid of this, we should attend to the meaning part of the passage rather than structure of sentences.

The principal remedy for vacalisation is to understand that we are reading for meaning and ideas and not for words. After a while when we realize that the meaning of words become less and less dependent on the sounds of words, we cease to vocalize. Some children who are not interested in studying, read louder to make a show of studying and to escape from the notice of their parents.

3. Lack of vocabulary and familiarity with sentence structure:
Vocabulary means knowledge of the words, their meaning and their correct usage in a sentence. Adequate vocabulary may also help to avoid vocalisation and facilitate silent reading

4. Word-by-word reading: This relates to the span of perception already referred to. Word-by-word reading shows narrow span of visual perception.

Without special training, many people do word-by-word reading. Word-by-word reading reduces speed and comprehension of reading. We should learn to group words into thought units instead of proceeding word-by-word.

To word-by-word reader the following sentences goes like this:
The/office/boy/put/the/mail/on/the/desk.
We should learn to break it into unites of thought like this.
The office boy/ put the mail/ on the desk.

When we break the words into units of thought, we are widening our eyes span, in addition to widening span of apprehension.

Widening of eye span also helps to eliminate the tendency to ‘margin-reading’ and some regressions. Tendency to margin reading is tendency of our eyes to go to far end of the margin, instead of the first letter of the line, when returning to a new line of print, thus wasting time.

We should develop sensing of larger thoughts, units, which are coherent and meaningful.

Examples:

More firms are using computers for record keeping
More firms/are using/computers/for record keeping
More firms/are using computers/for record keeping.

For record keeping, they have usually tended to have code numbers to identify goods of manufactures and their raw materials.

For record keeping/they have usually/tended to have/code numbers/to identify goods of manufacturers/and their raw materials.

For record keeping/they have usually tended to have/code numbers to identify goods/of manufacturers and their raw materials/

For widening the eye span, the following exercise may be practiced.

Prepare and structure the sentences as follows:
More firms are
Using computers
For record keeping they
Have usually tended to have
Code numbers to identify goods
Of manufacturers and their raw materials
Different companies have introducted into their jobs
Differing systems of suitable cards and numbers

Take a card and mark arrow lines as shown

Cover all but the opening line with the card; lower the card at a constant speed down words between the group of words on either side Try to read each line, while focusing your eye on the arrow mark. Try to take in extra letters every time, the line gets wider. This becomes increasingly difficult as the lines widen and you will experience a stronger urge to switch your eyes to the beginning of a line and read across three or more fixation. At some stage you will find you have reached your eye span.

- Bird watching without binoculars.
- Spotting our things at a distance
- Trying to read the Number Plates of cars, as they speed up
- Trying to locate things at a distance
- Star watching
- Watching cricket match from the gallery
- Practicing dancing- Bharathnatyam, Kathakali etc, involving eye movements help widening eye span.

5. Failure to understand the structure of the Paragraphs:
A paragraphs in English is a unit of thought description or analysis. It opens with a statement of theme, progress by filling out or qualifying the theme and closes with re-instatement in final form. Where logic of paragraphing is understood, the reader is likely to comprehend faster and fully. Not all paragraphs are logically constructed, but many will still have key words or pharases which are repeated several times in writing. If these are quickly picked out, the reader will improve his speed.

6. Preparing summary of the material as an aid to improve reading efficiency: Preparation of précis of the passages, preparing summaries and notes of what is read contributes to reading efficiency. Those who practice these do retain better grasp of the material for a longer time than people who do not take notes.

For an untrained note taker, taking notes involve a race against time in which he tends to fall further and further behind. He finds himself at the end with an almost illegible scrawl to decipher. Headings and sub-headings with space left for amplification and major points should be noted down. One should re-read the notes as early as possible. This means the same day in order to fix the subject in one’s mind, clear up ambiguities and correct the notes here and there.

It pays to discipline oneself to a system and to have a note book or a pad. Vigilance is needed not to blur the distinction between the record of what is being read and common ideas and comments added by the not taker.

After attending some meetings, you may have to prepare writeups/notes as review or report to be handed over to a third party.

In conclusion, let me reiterate some of the guidelines which may be of help in improving reading efficiency.

1. Knowing why we are reading.
2. Cultivating the practice of picking out the main ideas in a passage
3. Adapting the methods of reading to the nature of the matter in front of you and to the objective.
4. Getting the physical setting right
5. Reading in silence
6. Reducing eye movements to a minimum.
7. Keep forcing yourself to move ahead.
8. Making a practice of locating key words and phrases
9. Practicing concentration.
10. Adding to your vocabulary
11. Learning to distinguish the characteristic structure of the passage of writing.

Leadership

2004-12-17T19:32:00.000-08:00

Leadership
Dr.A.Sreekumar Menon
Psychologist, Specialist in Management Science and Author of Award Winning Management Books

Leaders as functioning elements of organisations are not formally nominated, selected, elected or appointed nor are they born, they are accepted and followed.

Leadership is a social skill. It consists of certain attitudes and behaviour (acts) towards others and a way of conducting one self which enables a person to cause others to follow his willingly or which enables one to cause others to follow him for a common goal. The ability of a person to cause others to follow him for a goal is the mark of leadership.

Some times followers are attracted to a leader who represents their values and aspirations, and they are willing to place themselves under the leadership of a person who can re-find and act on those values. Mahatma Gandhi was one such leader.

When a group of people are working together, there is nearly always an element of uncertainty amongst them. This uncertainty prompts people to choose a leader. Leader reduces uncertainty and confusion in a group. He enables the group to keep it focus on particular goals. In the case of managerial and supervisory leadership in an Organisation, the leader keeps the members of his work group focused on the objectives of the organization.

A person becomes a leader by displaying certain attitudes and behaviours towards others, which one is not born with and those which can be developed through learning and deliberate practice.

Those who display leadership direct other or work through people and get a particular work done by them or galvanize them into productive action or educate and evaluate them or hold the group focus on certain desired goals.

Leadership must help people. This calls for two attitudes to be present in the leader viz. (a) Empathy and (b) caring.

Empathy is the ability to project oneself imaginatively into other person and momentarily share his perceptions about him and the outside world. In other words, it means understanding of other person.

Empathy is different from sympathy. Empathy means understanding other person and his problems without oneself becoming emotionally involved, like a surgeon who deals with the emotions of others in crisis, cares for them and saves them, without becoming emotionally involved.

While exercising leadership (or helping people in group action), the leader should not play tricks and gimmicks, such as showing carrots, which are never giving or making false promises to keep the other man in hopes, flattering the other man without really meaning it, posing that he is his benefactors, posing to share interest with him etc., on the other hand, the relationship should be authentic. It should be a process of helping people which involves understanding, trusting, accepting, developing, recognizing them and their worth and helping them to achieve their needs and goals. There is a feeling of power and achievement in helping process. It is however, a different kind of power feeling than bossing. There is dictator in every one of us and unless we develop awareness of ourselves, we may use acts of helping to dominate and not to do real help. Act of dominance always gives many some personal satisfactions.

Those who are in positions of authority and who boss over their subordinates for the pleasure it gives them are said to be authoritarian personalities. They indulge in free use of power (Coercive, keeping their subordinates on their toes) given to them for personal aggrandizement, with negative consequences on organisation productivity and staff discipline.

Positions of Manager/Supervisor and Position of Leader
Manager-ship and supervisor-ship are broader terms than leadership. Those include more functions than leadership. Manager-ship and supervisor-ship include such functions as planning, organizing, staffing, directing, integrating and controlling of resources – time, money, materials and people to achieve organisational goals. Each of these resources can be planned, organized, directed, integrated and controlled but only one of these resources – people can be lead Efficiency in the utilization of other resources-time and money depends upon the effective use of human resources or manpower and this achieved by exercising right leadership. That is, it is a part of management/supervision. But it is not all of it. A Manager/Supervisor is required to plan and organize, but all we ask of a leader is that he gets others to follow. Leadership is a process of influencing and controlling others using power. Power is the ability of a person to dominate the values or goals of others. Power is a mode of influence. Influence is the ability of an individual or group to induce others to produce the desired result. Power is an important attribute in any type of relation. The amount of power determines the ability of person to influence others. There are different sources of power vested in an Officer/Supervisor. Those are:

1. The authority invested in the position, generally accepted by the subordinates. It is the hierarchical organisation of positions in terms of responsibility and the need to control the work of subordinates. It is revealed in the organisational structure and organisational chart. The hierarchical relationship is also often called as “Reporting Relationships”.

2. Authority to reward and punish (sanctioned power)
This power is sanctioned by the organisation. The tangible power that is power to sanction tangible rewards like granting merit increments, promotions, well furnished office, personal Secretary, chauffeur driven car for personal use, services of Peon, Telephone facilities having direct line, giving mobile phones, offering club memberships, Leave Travel Concession, Financial Powers etc. and the power to impose punishments on subordinates, such as imposing minor punishments like warning, Censure etc., and major punishments like withholding increments, suspension, demotion, retrenchment etc., are vested in each of the Supervisory/Managerial positions in varying degrees depending upon the levels. These powers are laid down in organisational Manuals under Administrative powers. The procedures to be followed in exercising these powers are also detailed.

If the boss is perceived as able to control rewards and punishments then he has these tangible powers.

3. Psychological Reward and Punishments
As opposed to the above kinds of tangible rewards and punishments there are several psychological rewards and punishments, which superiors can administer.

Some of the positive rewards (incentives) are appreciation, recognition, acceptance and listening, taking personal interest in subordinates etc. Some examples of negative incentives are keeping the subordinate at a distance, ignoring or being indifferent towards them or not taking any particular interest in them; being critical and harsh with them; and behaving with them in a condescending manner, keeping them on their toes and so on.

These types of rewards and punishments and their use are not specified any where in the volumes of organisational Rules and Regulations. Their use is left to the discretion of the managers. However, the organisation encourages the use of positive psychological rewards by managers and develops their skill in using them through training, for the optimum work potentials of their staff.

4. Expert Power
A supervisor with this type of power is one with some expertise, special skills or knowledge. The possession of one or more of these attributes make compliance of subordinates possible. Subordinates like to emulate their efficient boss. In other words, a superior who sets personal example by being enthusiastic, efficient and hardworking will have subordinates who are equally exciting and efficient in their work.

5. Referent Power
This power is based on the follower’s identification with the leader. They admire their leaders/ superiors, because of one or more of their personal qualities. Some of these qualities are;
- Exemplary courage in the face of difficult situations.
- Ability to deal with emergency situations.
- Being fair and firm, and open in dealings with people.
- Holding same values and aspirations as those possessed by followers/subordinates and striving for their realization. People place themselves under the leadership of those who act on the values which they cherish and experience vicarious satisfaction or satisfaction of those values through their identification with the leader.
- Perception of the follower/subordinates that their leader/superior will work in their best interests.

6. Persuasive Power
This is power, the superior uses in influencing his subordinates when he listens to them, discuses with them their problems, shares their view points, use facts, information, logic and reasoning and attempts to convince their subordinates. He does not use his persuasive power, when he forces his opinions and decisions upon his subordinates; and he uses coercive power (weight) of his sanctioned power (or authority). To use persuasive power, calls for some special ability and skills. For a boss, coercion (the act of forcing one’s views and decisions on others) may come as natural as any of his daily habits. Application of persuasive power needs certain personal sacrifice, self discipline and attempt on the part of the superiors to get best out of their staff for the department.

Leader Behaviour
The successful leadership depends on acts and not on personal traits, as it was thought years ago. It requires behaviours that unite and stimulate followers towards definite objectives in specific situations. The supervisors are expected to display leadership behaviour by encouraging them as individuals and members of the team to work efficiently and to maintain work discipline.

The following are some of the typical behaviour which people in leadership positions display:

1. Representation – Speaking and acting as the representatives of the group, taking with higher ups problems faced by their subordinates and ideas expressed by them in regard to work and supporting the case of their subordinates before top management, whenever it is warranted.
2. Demand Reconciliation – Reconciling conflicting demands and reducing confusion and disorder in the group.
3. Tolerance of uncertainty – Feelings of being comfortable to work under conditions of uncertainty, ability to make sense out of a problem situation, working with confidence and striking solutions.
4. Persuasiveness – Persuasiveness (as opposed to forcing others) is the skill to influence others by using positive motivation. This is achieved by Leadership.
- Being friendly and approachable.
- Seeing from other’s points of view.
- Giving each individual a sense of importance, taking them seriously.
- Encouraging team spirit.
- Discussing with them job matters-jobs and the method of doing.
- Consulting them and respecting their opinions on matters that affect them.
- Using facts and logic in arguments and attempting to convince.
- Giving them adequate freedom in their job (proper delegation of authority)
- Constantly urging them to perform well, by injecting a spirit of competition in the group.
- Appreciating good work and guiding and training people to do a job well.
- Giving them opportunity to use their special skills and abilities and to master new skills.

5. Production Emphasis – Telling about duties (what is expected from subordinates), goals and work standards, setting goals and work standards: reviewing progress in work and encouraging them to work efficiently.
6. Work Facilitation – Creating conditions necessary for work, providing materials and facilities, proper physical conditions etc.,

Views on Leadership
The following are some of the current thinking regarding leadership.

1. Coercive view
Under coercive view superior uses fear of punishment, coercion and threats to make subordinates conform to his wishes. Uses of threats and punishments has become increasingly difficult today, because of the laws protecting employees from arbitrary actions on the part of the employers and also, because of growing trade union strength.

However, these sanctions are still used in many organisations. Under coercive approach, the employees may manage to get away by doing minimum amount of work that will keep them safe from punishments. They may also resentment overtly or covertly. Their attitude towards Administration hardens and these hardened attitudes turn them into union activists showing confrontational attitudes towards Management/ Administration.

Even in R & D institutions we find today formation of scientific workers Associations (S.W.A)

They may also develop confronting behaviour and sense of dependency. They may not display any originality and may not attempt any improvement in their work. On the other hand, they may turn to be rigid and may resist any attempt to introduce any change in the work, such as innovations and Computerization. The very idea of change threatens them. They fear that they will loose their jobs or that they will not succeed in learning the new jobs. When changes (such as office automation and computerization) in the modern organisations are inevitable, the coercive leadership styles, if practiced, will develop employee resistance to the introduction of such changes.

2. The Mechanistic View
According to this, the employees are regarded as machines which should put forth the required efforts, if they are informed about their jobs and if proper conditions (the right work load, good office supply of paper and other materials and equipments) are given. No special effort is considered necessary on the part of superiors in creating certain social and psychological conditions for the subordinates. Under this system, superiors do not pay any particular attention to their subordinates and work. Just as a machine will start working when it is switched on, so also it is thought that the human machines will start producing when the necessary inputs such as job instructions and tools and materials are given.

Under this climate, the employees carry out work in a disinterested routine way. They do not show initiative and readiness to undertake tasks assigned by their superiors, realizing importance and urgency. Many times, they even evade work, do not show individual responsibility and pass the buck. They experience their work as monotonous. They work because of their, other attractions outside, which their jobs afford than to go for. They also spend considerable times gossiping on the job. They hardly perceive the objectives which are to be achieved while performing their tasks nor attach any importance to them. They try hard to show that they keep busy with their work. They may also bring in many things which are outside their work. They may also bring in many things which are outside their work to the job context such as spending office time for planning cultural programmes, transacting private business etc., Lack of co-ordination and delay in the execution of work are invariably seen at all levels. Superiors lack adequate control over their subordinates. They get work done by their subordinates by appealing to their personal loyalties and by exchanging favours rather than by their legitimate role authority. One finds very little work discipline among employees under this climate.

3. The stage of Psychological Motivation.
Under this style, superiors try to exert positive influence over their subordinates, by providing them opportunities in the job and while at work to satisfy several of their social and psychological needs, by creating appropriate conditions to enable them productive. The Hawthorne Experiments conducted in 1933 on Productivity and Working conditions revealed the fact that employees work harder and efficiently even when the physical conditions are below normal, when their jobs, leadership and other organisational practices provide scope for satisfaction of many of their social and psychological needs. This study marks the beginning of such attempts which are termed as ‘Human Relations Movement’.

The styles of Leadership
Management scholars have made successful attempts to classify the leadership behaviours into different categories (or styles) according to the following factors:
a) The authority used to reward and punish.
b) The extent with which positive, negative, tangible and psychological rewards are used by the leader.
c) The use of power other than formal authority
d) Freedom and participation allowed to subordinates as against enforcement of compliance (or acting democratically as against actively dominating or employee-centered approach as against authoritarian approach and tight control)

The following are some examples given by an author on differences between behaviour of a “Boss” and a “Leader”.
The Boss The Leader
Drives his men Coaches his men
Counts on Authority Gets their good will
Keeps them guessing and fearful Arouses their enthusiasm
Talks about “I” Makes it “We”
Says “get here on time” Gets there ahead of time
Finds blame for break down Fixes the breakdown/assists subordinates to correct
Knows how it is done Shows how it is done
Makes work a drudgery Makes work interesting
Says “Go” Says “let us go”

What is an effective leadership style?
There is difference of opinion regarding the amount of control the leader should exert on subordinates, the extent of freedom to be given and the amount of pressure to be exerted on subordinates for production. According to democratic style, the leader should give freedom to the subordinates to set goals, and to the job they think ‘fit’ so long as the goals are met. He should delegate authority to the subordinates and should not supervise their work too closely. It is said that he should not unduly emphasis achievement of production goals as the members would realize need for it, if they are properly motivated and inturn they are genuinely interested in their work.

Under authoritarian leadership, the leader maintains tight control over the group and its activities. The members are told what to do and how to do it. All the decisions are made by the leader. Much pressure is to put on subordinates for achieving production.

Reward - Punishment Orientation
An authoritarian leader may use either of these approaches:

(1) Predominantly punishments both tangible like giving warning, charge sheeting, censure etc.
(2) Predominantly Rewards – The Authoritarian Manager/Supervisor (Leader) may administer rewards for the compliance of his staff. The rewards may be tangible ones like early confirmation, promotion or even minor concessions which he can allow with in his power like quick sanctioning of vehicle loan, house building loan, providing furnished office, telephone and assistants, giving transfer to a place of choice, and many other small favours, which constitute material incentives. Some of the psychological rewards, which he might give are acceptance and approval, liking, taking the subordinates into confidence, informality and personal warmth, sympathizing and supporting. He may support his subordinates when they listen to him, when they are not assertive, when they are loyal to him and when they serve his personal interest. The authoritarian (or Autocratic) leader who predominantly uses (external) reward approach for controlling his subordinates is called ‘Benevolent Authoritarian’ leader and he who uses predominantly punishment approach is called “Coercive Authoritarian Leader”.

Between these two extremes there is another type of leader who uses both “Rewards” and “Punishments”. He is often called as using “Carrot and Stick” approach. He rewards his subordinates for their particular behaviour which he wants from them. He may also promise a reward and may keep the subordinate in hope to get the work done. In other words, he may show he carrot, but he may not give either to keep his subordinates in perpetual hope or that it is not with in his power to give. Similarly may like recommending the case of his subordinate for promotion, give him transfer and posting in the place of his choice etc., These superiors mostly use tangible rewards. They do not make much use of psychological rewards, probably because of their limited knowledge and practical skill. Along with rewarding a desired behaviour; he also punishes his subordinates for his conduct which he does not expect from them. Again, his tendency will be to impose tangible Punishments – punishments which are easy to impose. Such as reprimanding subordinates in the presence of others, seeking explanation, charge sheeting, issuing punishment orders, with-holding increments and imposing other punishments which a superior can impose exercising his authority.

Very little attempt is made and made consciously to correct the subordinates using psychological punishments, the record of which does not go into their service records. There are very many situations which the superior can create in the organisation which are more effective in correcting the behaviour of the staff than the above limited approaches to punishment. Some of the psychological punishments are the superior being indifferent to the subordinate, ignoring him and paying special attention to their colleagues, not involving him in any important activities taking place in the organisation (keeping him out of the main stream of organisational activities), nor sharing with him important Departmental information, not giving him any chance to take initiative, organize and show up in any social and recreational activities that take place within the organisational context, not keeping him as person in whom the superior has confidence and with whom the superior can share his moments of informality, keeping him socially at a distance etc. Here the superior deprives subordinates certain sources of satisfaction, which the subordinate cannot demand legally. If these are withheld, the subordinates cannot accuse the boss that it was an act of victimization, as he can do in the case of physical punishments including reprimands. Because the above kinds of satisfactions are not in the form of employee ‘right’ or ‘demand’. These are perceived as those which the superior can dispense with at his will particularly to reinforce the right type of behaviour on the part of subordinates.

However, the question of withholding the above sources of satisfaction arises, only if they are present in the job satisfaction.

Carrot and stick philosophy
The method of showing ’carrot and stick’ will work only in the short run. This is so particularly, if the carrots can only be shown and cannot be given. Again, superiors have limitations in giving ‘carrots’ as decisions regarding promotion, merit increments etc. are decided at the highest levels and the immediate superior may not have any say in these matters.

Again, those who use ‘carrot’ and ‘stick’ may not use them consistently. Thus, the subordinates face the problem of predictability of leadership styles of their boss and of knowing what is expected of them, which in turn lead to job dissatisfaction, lack of self confidence, tension and anxiety on the job, resulting in low productivity.

Another problem is when the subordinate is given some tangible rewards for each of his good acts, he expects such rewards (mostly money or other concessions) for whatever he does. If he fails to receive the reward once, he reacts to it strongly and his enthusiasm dampens suddenly. In other words a money culture develops with the result that employees start expecting extra – payment even in the form of ‘bribe’ or ‘tips’ or allowance for what ever they do which otherwise forms part of their duties for which they are paid. What is a fair day’s work becomes difficult to define.

The excessive use of punishment has many ill effects. Subordinates show aggression towards the punishing authority and towards the Department, either openly or in-disguise which affects their work and their relations with others. They may also experience feelings of tension and anxiety causing even health problems such a headache, nausea, ulcer and heart problems like hypertension. Their attitude towards the department hardens, and they resist any change. Some of them take to hard core unionism to retaliates against the actions of management, which is the object substitute for their boss for the type of treatment they receive. In general, the resentment of the staff towards punitive supervisory style may add to union strength. All these make Management’s task of introducing such changes as mechanization and computerization for increasing in efficiency, rather difficult, when the Unions of above types assume all out uncompromising attitudes.

Finally, the question is what is the effective/ideal type of leadership which supervisors should exercise towards their staff? and what are the lesions, the trainees should learn about ‘Leadership’ from this paper?

The ideal type of leadership depends upon the(1) the personality of the superior (2) the abilities, capabilities, and socio cultural background of subordinates and (3) exigencies of the situation.

Democratic/non-directive/participatory Leadership style allows subordinates experience balance of power with the boss. But such balancing can be very threatening to a boss who is insecure as a person or insecure of his ability or because he has not learnt to share his power constructively. As they may find their boss to be authoritarian and that they may have to submit to them, they may in turn want their subordinates to submit to them as if to get back part of their lost respect. The tendency goes from top to bottom of the organisation till the level of Bapus who takes it out on his wife or family or on the visitors, showing arrogance and condescending attitudes. He compensates his lost prestige at least by the extra-money he collects as ‘tips’ from the helpless visitors.

The question is whether the superior who has an authoritarian attitude can adopt a democratic approach towards his subordinates. Though one may find it difficult at the first sight, it is possible if he makes an honest attempt and also if he realizes that his giving up some power to his subordinates, invariably results in his increasing control over them and that they do a good job of what is entrusted to them, with the result he can face his boss with some-thing worth while to his credit which no authoritarian boss can overlook, His boss impressed by his commendable performance may certainly consider him as a person worthy of enjoying more freedom, discretion and support from him.

Second, it is necessary for the superior to develop self-awareness that is, realizing what he has to achieve. Does he want to achieve some momentary he go satisfaction by shouting at his subordinates and by making all the decisions by himself or he wants to get best out of his people and prove that he is an efficient leader and most efficient officer, beyond doubt. Once he realizes that the second one is the objective he will share his power constructively with his people. He will also find that he derives satisfaction of sense of power and achievement. When he is able to work through his people by sharing his power. Giving power to his subordinates does not mean that he should be just a onlooker of what the members do. On the other hand, he should actively involve himself in the group activities without always throwing his weight around. If he takes a back seat, he is abdicating his leadership role. He fails in role assumption. This is the predominant characteristic of Free Rein style or liaise-faire style of leadership. Member Secretary of committee, Chairman of a Board of Trustees, the convener of a task committee etc. display this type of leadership.

The Background of Subordinates
The subordinates may differ in their knowledge, skills, abilities, experience, seniority, ambitions, ability to learn, sense of direction (perception of goals) etc., which constitute their intellectual and personality back-ground. Similarly, they may differ in their social back ground in the sense that they may like to have social relations in the work place in different degrees. Some might expect family type of relationship (social intimacy) in the work place, others may want only functional relations necessary to have peace at work. Because of the early training and family experiences, some might look for personal attention, guidance and approval, emotional support and detailed instructions, while others expect only general instructions and guidelines, may like to have freedom and responsibility and might like to feel important.

The leader should cerate conditions for the satisfactions of the needs of persons who value social relationships and those value status, freedom and responsibility.

The leader should allow more freedom and responsibility to his subordinates who are relatively high in their intellectual background and who display maturity and let them to the work under general supervision.

In the case those who are relatively low in their intellectual back ground, the leader should exercise more control by way of giving them instructions, guidance and follow up, so also in the case of those who look for intimate social relationships in the work place.

The leader should see that all his subordinates are treated with human dignity and respect.

He should show sense belonging to the group of his subordinates and be one with them in his interactions as the member of his group, at the same time he should have distinct identity of his own as a person. Thus, he is able to see things as his subordinates see them. This skill which is required as a leadership quality is called empathy.

His separate identity referred to above should be a part of extended identity of the Department Management. In this identity he should uphold the principle and policies of the Department and should implement them as the representative of the management.

MOTIVATING SUBORDINATES

2004-11-29T21:05:00.000-08:00

MOTIVATING SUBORDINATES
Dr.A.Sreekumar Menon

Psychologist, Specialist in Management Science and Author of Award Winning Management Books

Motivation as a subjective experience, is the readiness to act or behave in a particular way. People do what they do or behave the way they do, because it helps them to satisfy some of their needs and experience pleasure or it helps them to avoid thwarting of certain needs and consequent experience of displeasure. Under certain circumstances people act in such a way that they seek satisfaction of some of their needs (for example the staff listens to the boss whose arguments are logical and convincing). Under other circumstances, a person behaves in such a way that he avoids sources of personal dissatisfaction or failure. For example, an employee behaves properly on the job for fear of disciplinary actions towards him, in other words to avoid a situation in which he has to suffer punishment.

Motivating subordinates is an act on the part or superiors to energise the will and prompt action of their subordinates towards doing their job well. It is influencing their behavior so that they work as expected. The process of motivating subordinates is means to get the work done by them. In making the subordinates to do what their superior wants them to do, he can either force them, using his authority, or can create positive conditions for the satisfaction of their needs and get them to do the job willingly. His first approach is a negative “Motivation Approach” or “Punishment” or “Coercive” approach and his second approach is “Positive Motivation Approach “ or “Reward Approach” or “Persuasive Approach.” The first one creates conditions for the subordinates to avoid ‘potential punishment.’ The practice of administering “Rewards” (providing for need satisfaction) and administering “Punishments” together is known as “carrot and stick” style of management/ leadership.

Organisation tries to influence and control (tries to motivate) its employees by means of its personnel and welfare policies by providing proper work environment and through supportive supervision. The kinds of attempts, superior officers make in motivation their staff, whether they employ predominantly a Positive Motivational approach or predominantly a Negative Motivational Approach or a mixed approach, or even in Motivational Approach, what positive ‘Motivational Techniques will be used, all depend upon their understanding and appreciation of the “process of human Motivation.” The field of psychology has brought about a rich wealth of material on “Human Motivation and Human Behaviour.”

The Psychology of Human Motivation
The first principle is that all our behaviour is purposeful. That is it serves some purpose to the person. The behaviour is aroused by needs. We may not be aware of all needs. Some needs may be operating at the sub-conscious level. That is, we may not be knowing always why we behave or behaved in a particular way. The primary motive (intention, purpose) of a student who studies hard at the time of examination is to get a good pass. This primary motive is clear to him. But, he might also unconsciously want to invite the attention of his parents and to enjoy their appreciation and good will. Similarly, an employee attends his work with punctuality and does a good job, because, he knows clearly that he will have to face punishments, if he is irregular in attendance and neglects his duties. But, there is nothing in the code of conduct to check whether the employee is putting his best. If he puts in the so called ‘day’s work’, he can be safe. But some take more initiative, more responsibility and enjoys working hard, while the same job for other is not so attractive. The reasons for this may not be quite clear to them. In other words, some of the needs that trigger their enthusiasm may be operating at the sub-conscious level.

Multiplicity of Needs
It is not that a single need operates I producing behaviour on the other hand, many needs operate simultaneously. The personal satisfaction or other wise, that result from the needs when they are satisfied or thwarted influence the behaviour of the people. Thus, the behaviour is quite complex, although it can be predicted and controlled with reasonable degree of success.

Needs Crave for Expression and Satisfaction
Infact, whole life, (day to day life) is nothing but our attempt to satisfy our needs or to avoid the discomfort when needs are thwarted. The moments we wake up, we except a cup of tea preferably served by our wives, to satisfy our needs of hunger, approval, belonging appreciation etc. We should take bath, dress up and stand before the mirror trimming moustache or adjusting the collar all to satisfy a combination of our needs such as those of health and hygiene, sense of importance (to look good) etc. Thus, our moment to moment living is an expression of needs for fulfillment or potential fulfillment.

The life, a person spends in the work place is not very different from the life he spends out of office hours – life in the family, with friends etc. when he comes for work, he comes very much as a “need seeking individual”. He does not bundle his needs at the reception, before starting his work in order to pick them up when he returns home. He brings his needs along with him and those needs stay with him while he is at work, craving for expression in the process of his work. These need find expression and satisfaction or potential satisfaction, when conditions conductive to them are available in the work place. How effective a person would work depends upon the type of needs they have and the opportunities available in the work place for their satisfaction. The basic needs which people possess, express themselves as job needs in the work setting. For example, the basic physiological and safety needs for protection take the form of employee expectation for good salary, permanency of tenure of job and attractive social security schemes.

The basic human needs when expressed on the job as job needs or employee expectations are called “Incentives”. For example permanency of tenure is an incentive which is provided by the employer for security (long term economic protection). When the organisation provides security of tenure to all confirmed employees, it is providing a substantial incentive. The employees need not fear of losing their jobs and of facing economic problem as faced by those by working in the unorganized sector. The department provides some of the incentives under legal obligations such as the minimum salary, normal hours of work (work load), leave, holidays, toilet and rest cum lunch room as well as recreation and sports facilities, Educational allowance for children subsidized, canteen etc. are given voluntarily as a mark of organisations’ welfare concerns towards their employees. In other words, these are given out of good will of the organisation towards the staff and also to promote the concept of a ‘one family’.

Needs, Incentives and Motives
A need in a person when activated by an incentive takes the form of ‘Motive’. Need activates behaviour, only when it is in a Motive state. Motives are, activated needs. The word “Motivation” comes from the word “Motives” which are activated needs which set off behaviours.

Human Needs
Human needs are numerous. To make handling of the needs wieldy, an American Psychologist, Abraham Maslow classified human needs into the following five categories operating in a hierarchical order. This comes to be known as Maslow’s theory of Need Hierarchy.

The need categories are:
1. Physiological Needs: These needs are starting points in motivating people. They are needs of survival and maintenance. The need for food, clothing, shelter, air, and other necessities of life are examples. These are expressed in the job as expectations for a good salary and other monetary incentives like availability of consumer co-operatives, subsidized canteen, bonus, L.T.C etc.,

2. Safety and Security Needs: These include need for long term economic security and protection against any risks, and also psychological security. Permanency job tenure, retirement benefits, Insurance against occupational and other health risks, Gratuity and Employee Provident Fund and loans for House Building etc., are measures provided to take care of safety and security needs of employees.

Sharing of job information with the employees about their job as a whole, their individual duties and responsibilities, interest taken by the superior in knowing what each one is doing and how they are doing and discussion with them about the problems they face, giving them feed back that they are meeting the expectations of their superiors in their work and conduct, developing clear cut authority and accountability and keeping the staff posted with organisation information give them the feeling of personal security and help development of “Self Identify” among the staff. On the contrary lack of definite policies on the part of top administration, lack of adequate sharing of departmental information with the staff (making them to guess), giving conflicting instructions, conflicting expectations between the officers and their subordinates regarding the criteria used in writing confidential records, destructive criticism, reprimands, bullying etc., by the officers in their dealings with their subordinate staff, the practice of placing one against another (the philosophy of divide and rule, acts of favoritism etc, thwart the staff need for security. They feel insecure (a pure psychic experience not born out of any monetary considerations), some times they feel helpless, anxious and tense, all characteristic of poor mental health.

The sense of insecurity shared by the staff may lead to all kinds of irrational behaviours in the work situation such as excessive pre-occupation with rules and regulations, rigidity in thinking, total resistance to anything new and unconventional etc., Any change envisaged such as “switching over to computerized handling of accounts, automation etc., is perceived as a threat, even if the organisation assures protection of employees from the effects of such automation and even when such measure could benefit the employees. From this it is clear that both the Top Administration, and the middle and first level officers should not create conditions, which lead to accumulated feelings of insecurity in the minds of staff, in their day to day dealings with them. If sense of insecurity is developed in the minds of staff in the day to day dealings, it will nullify the positive effect of even the well intended programmes such as the practice of giving permanency in jobs, social security measures etc. which are implemented to meet security needs.

3. Social Needs: Man is a social animal, although the strength of this need varies from individual to individual depending upon their family and socio-cultural background. He is interested in conversation, companionship, in seeking belongingness, in seeking acceptance in a group etc., These social needs are also called “Affiliation” needs. They express in the job situation in several ways. For example, they express as:

- The need to like and to be liked.
- The need to have people around who care for each other.
- The need to be listened to them and to show genuine interest in their problems.
- The need to be in good books of the boss.
- The need to know whether they are meeting the expectations of their superior.
- The need to be a member of work group and to be in an atmosphere of approval and acceptance by the members of the group.
- The need to have friendly, approachable and helpful boss.
- The need to do something in common with the members of one’s group or to work for a common goal.
- The need to share common values with the members of a group with which one identifies.
- Desire to work with shared understanding of each other’s contributions and mutual support and appreciation. The desire to stay and work in an atmosphere of friendliness, understanding and co-operation rather in an atmosphere of rivalry and unfriendliness.

The strategy of playing against one another creates intense rivalry and conflict in which one tries to destroy the other, although this style might prompt the subordinates to compete with each other in getting into the good books of the Boss, by being subservient and blindly obedient to him and his wishes.

The officers can also manipulates the social need situation in such a way that it is used for punishing the staff. Willfully ignoring or showing indifference towards a staff member, transferring an employee from a key position to a lesser important position and such other practice can amount to punishment. In such cases, the effected individual is deprived of satisfaction of some of his social needs.

4. Self – esteem and Ego (Status) Needs: These include need for status (or feeling important) need for freedom and participation, and need for responsibility and appreciation and recognition of good work. Persons develop self confidence when they experience satisfaction from recognition from superiors and peers and consequently feel that they are important persons.

5. Self actualization needs: These needs express themselves as the desire to do a job well, do a difficult and challenging job, do a whole task and assume responsibility (rather than carrying out fractionated parts of a job), do a job which requires mental application (rather than doing a routine job), to have some goals (targets) to aim at, to know (feed-back) how one is fairing at a task, to learn new ideas, to innovate in work, to undertake special assignments and to utilize one’s skills and special abilities. In the advance stage of self actualization, the person aspires to become more and more what he is capable of becoming.

Maslow conceived these needs categories as following a hierarchical order, in the sense that the needs at the higher levels of the hierarchy operate only when the needs at the lower hierarchical levels are reasonably satisfied. For example – Social needs do not dominate, until physiological and security needs are reasonably satisfied. Similarly, Ego needs are not aroused for expression, until all other needs below it are reasonably satisfied. This truth was expressed by Gandhiji when he said that “to a hungry man even God will appear only in the form of bread” or it was expressed by Lenin when he said that “if food is given to people, they will ask for poetry.”

The other side of the need hierarchy is that man is a wanting animal, he continues to seek something or other. He is never fully satisfied. If one need is satisfied, other need arises. According to the hierarchy of needs, a person can be motivated only if the motivational attempts match with his predominant position in the need hierarchy. For instance, if the person expects satisfaction of social needs much more than that of any other needs, attempts to motivate him by allowing freedom in his work and giving discretion in taking decisions may not work. On the other hand, attempts to motivate such a person with social need-orientation should be related to that orientation and it should be such actions on the part of his superior as encouraging him to work as a member of his work group, behaving with him with a sense of personal touch, listening to his personal problems and counselling him and so on.

Maslow classified the need categories into two broad groups namely lower order needs and higher order needs. Physiological, safety and social class of needs and some of the needs belonging to Ego need category are grouped under lower order needs (also called Deficiency needs) and self-actualization category of needs and some of the needs in the self-esteem category are grouped under higher order needs (also called Growth Needs). Deficiency needs are potent and activate behaviour only till they are satisfied. Once these needs are satisfied they loose their potency to activate behaviour. Man lives for bread alone along as it is not available. Once it is available and once it is satisfied at a particular level, it does not motivate the person. He raises his expectations and he will be motivated only if he sees his chance for satisfaction of other needs. Thus, it may be necessary to provide more and more to meet the perpetually rising levels of expectations and thereby to sustain motivation. An organization may not be able to do this due to practical constraints. In organisational life we find employees asking for more, when their previous expectations are met. Thus, these needs are potent only when they are in a state of deficiency or when they are deprived and hence called “Deficiency Needs” In Contrast to this, the satisfying experience of growth needs continuously energizes motivation (or drive) of the people and keeps him in action. Hence these are called “Growth Needs.”

Hertzberg Theory of Motivation
Hertzberg, an American Psychologist and his colleagues applied the concept of Maslow’s needs to the job situation in order to study motivating work outcomes. They called the job situation (opportunities in the job for need satisfaction or incentives) as “Job Factors”. They provided some new insights into the relationships between job satisfaction and job performance. They reported certain findings which are summarized below:

The satisfaction of certain classes of job needs which they called ‘Hygienes’ kept the employees from being dissatisfied with their jobs. The Hygiene Factors are salary, good working conditions and supportive supervision. Employee dissatisfaction in regard to these leads to dysfunctional consequences such as tardiness, work indiscipline, accidents, absenteeism and labour turnover. There was no indication that the fulfillment of these needs resulted in better employee performance and work output. These factors are thus comparable to hygiene. For example when garbage is heaped up in a place, the problem of lack of hygiene immediately catches out attention. On the other hand if the place is need and clean, the hygiene aspect goes unnoticed. Similarly, if the above sources of satisfaction are absent, it leads to poor employee – employer relations, which catches immediate attention of the employers. The presence of these factors alone does not contribute to productivity. In contrast to the so called ‘Hygiene factors’, there are other factors, which are in the nature of the work itself (or also called intrinsic factors), the fulfillment of which leads to productivity and personal effectiveness. Hertzberg called them as “Motivators’ some of the Motivators are freedom for employees to exercise control on the job, opportunity to assume responsibility, recognition for achievement, opportunity for learning and development, sense of competition etc. This theory is known as “Two Factor Theory of Motivation.

Though there are certain objections raised against this theory, it has stimulated new thinking about the scope of satisfaction of employee needs and productivity. I casts doubt on the validity of the general assumptions about the nature of employees – such assumptions as employees are intrinsically lazy and prefer to be supervised closely, that they seek only monetary benefits and that they are not concerned with opportunities in the job for satisfaction of higher orders needs, needs concerned with realization of human freedom and dignity and utilization of one’s skills and capabilities. Motivation – Hygiene theory on the other hand emphasizes the importance of fulfilling Hygiene factors for the sake of keeping a contended workforce free from major labour relations problems and that of fulfilling Motivations for performance efficiency and productivity.

One way to look at work motivation is in terms of human needs and their operations as discussed above. Another way is to see it as a readiness on the part of the person to work as best as his abilities permit, when proper conditions are prevailing. This view of motivation is known as “Expectancy Theories” of Motivation. According to Expectancy theories, an employees will try to work to his capacities if he finds that the chance of achieving results are high, when he works hard and that the chance of his getting rewards are also there, if he shows high productivity. Some of the examples of rewards are salary, promotion, appreciation of good work, opportunities to use one’s abilities and special skills, opportunity to learn and increase one’s competence etc.

The perception on the part of employees that the chances of achieving high productivity are high is called the subjective probability related to the first level outcome. Achievement of higher productivity is the First level outcome. Getting rewards as a result of high productivity is the subjective probability with regard to Second level outcome. The second level outcomes are the incentives which attract the employees. Thus, if the job incentives are attractive to the employees (also called valence) and that if working hard and achieving high productivity lead to achievement of rewards, then they will be motivated to put in their best. The incentives (rewards), the instrumentality (the belief that the second level outcomes will be the result of first level outcome) and the expectancy (the belief that the increased efforts will lead to increased production) follow a multiplicative relationship as shown below:
Motivation = Incentives X Instrumentality X Expectancy
or
High Quality effort = High attraction (or valence) for second level outcome X High Instrumentality X High Expectancy

The implication of this multiplicative function is that if any one of these three factors is Zero, the resulting motivation will also be zero, and an increase in each of the factors raises the level of work motivation. In other words, for high motivation, salary, promotion, appreciation and other rewards (second level outcome) should be valued by employees and that they should perceive that these follow high productivity (Instrumentality) and that they will be able to bring about high productivity with their effort (Expectancy). They will be able to produce results with their effort only if they have proper working conditions or only if the conditions associated with their work are under their control. If there are situational factors, which are not under their control, which hampering productivity, they may not feel like putting in their best efforts. Among many rewards, both monetary and non – monetary, the process of working well (Task accomplishment) provides several sources of satisfaction such as the satisfaction from utilizing one’s special abilities and skills, opportunity for learning and development, satisfaction from the sense of challenge, satisfaction from a job well done etc.

Profile of Dr. A.Sreekumar Menon

2004-11-06T20:36:00.000-08:00

Profile of Dr. A.Sreekumar Menon
Dr. A.Sreekumar Menon who is now residing at Bangalore belongs to Athickat House in Nallepilly in Palakkad District in Kerala. He holds M.A and Ph.D Degrees in Psychology, Behavioural Science and Management. He did his post Doctorate in Australia. He has a very impressive academic record, being the recipient of five Post-graduate scholarships, Doctoral and Post-Doctoral Fellowships and other Awards including those awarded by University of Kerala, Ministry of Education, Govt. of India, University Grants Commission, Ford Foundation, U.S.A and International Institute of Labour Studies Geneva. He has authored 5 research based original books of which two received All India D.M.A – Escort’s Awards for best management books written by Indian Authors. His book titled “Scientists and Organisation” is perhaps the single empirically based book available on R&D Management in India. His books have been included as authoritative reference sources for M.B.A and other Post-graduate Management courses and Post-Graduates course in Sericultural Management. They are also used in Management Training in Business Corporations. His books have also received laudable comments in reviews both in India and abroad. In addition he has contributed several Articles in reputed journals. He contributed articles to Organisational Management, Quarterly Journal of Palakkad Management Association regularly for over ten years. He also writes articles in Malayalam. He is a voracious reader, prolific writer and eloquent speaker on Management and other subjects. He has delivered several lectures addressing both professional and general audience. The lecture which he delivered for five and a half hours nonstop on Scientific creativity addressing Senior Scientists and Engineers of C.S.I.R Laboratories held in New Delhi was his landmark lecture, which the organizers qualified as having “hypnotic effect”. He has also addressed Chief Executives, Administrators and Senior Managers. His another lecture which continued for 3 hours addressing Engineering College Teachers, keeping them in rapt attention was lauded by the participants as well as by Dr.Sanathanan (Rtd.) Professor of Communication Engineering of University of Chicago U.S.A who is also Honorary Director of the said Engineering College. Dr. Menon has held key position in India and abroad.

He continues his active and dynamic professional life. He has also been engaged in the work of Educational and Personality Development of youths. He has also contributed to innovative social action programs for Community Development. He is also fascinated by Indian and Kerala Culture. He looks forward to associating himself with any worth while project for the betterment of Humanity. He can be reached for informative discussions, assistance, collaboration and consultations through his E-mail ID as santhasree2000@yahoo.com or through his phone No. 25341374.

2004-11-02T06:48:00.000-08:00

Dr.Sree Kumara Menon

Motivation and Leadership

2004-10-31T03:03:00.000-08:00

Motivation is the willingness to act in a particular way. Motivation is the reason why a person behaves the way he does. For instance, we find some people are more interested in their work than others. In other words, they show higher level of work motivation than others. We generally hold a simplistic assumption why persons behave the way they do. For instance, when we find that an employee is irregular in attending his work or when an employee is sloppy in his work, we say that he is irresponsible, careless and so on. We may also say that he should be corrected by giving him warning or by punishing him. We also believe that the work is inherently distasteful to people and that they will avoid work or try to get away by doing minimum work. These assumptions about the human behaviour are not true. If an employee is not showing normal enthusiasm in his true. If an employee is not showing normal enthusiasm in his work, it is not because he is careless or lacks commitment, but because of other reasons. For instance, he is not motivated on the job. In words, what we consider as causes of behaviour are really the effects. Causes of employee behaviour lies some where else, which are discussed under the process of motivation. An understanding of the process of motivation helps us
(1) to understand and appreciate the behaviours of people better,
(2) to predict how people will behave under different circumstances and
(3) to know how we can influence their behaviours in the desired direction.

Motivation to work often called ‘work motivation’ is the willingness to work in such a way that the results are achieved. Our activities or behaviour, whether it pertains to our family life or our work is aroused and directed towards particular goals and sustained by needs or motives or drives. Needs are deficiency states which impel the individual to action. Motives are the needs which are aroused. The activated needs or motives energise behaviour in the direction of a particular goal/goals that would satisfy a particular need or needs which are evoked, for instance, the hunger need. The feeling of hunger activated the person in search of food and sustains in the food searching activity till food is obtained and eaten. The opportunities which are available in the work organisations for the satisfaction of the needs of the employees are known as incentives. Salary, comfortable working conditions, welfare facilities, permanency of jobs, supportive supervision and congenial relationships with the colleagues are some of the examples of incentives.

Needs and their expression on the job
There are scares of needs. An American psychologist, Abraham Maslow, classified those needs into the following give categories viz. (1) physiological, (2) safety and security, (3) social or affiliative, (4) ego or self esteem and (5) self-actualization.

Physiological needs
These are needs of survival and maintenance. The need for food, clothing, shelter and other modern comforts are examples of physiological needs. These needs are articulated on the job as expectations of good salary, attractive perks, comfortable work environment, welfare facilities and so on.

Safe and security needs
Those are needs for long term economic security, security against risks and also for psychical or emotional security. Permanency of jobs, retirement and superannuation benefits, health and accident insurance, various thrift schemes, etc. provide economic security. Sharing of job information with the subordinates, discussing with them about duties and responsibilities thereby making them clear as to what is expected of them, interest taken by superiors in getting to know what their subordinates are doing, how well they are doing and what problems they face on the job and communicating with the subordinates that they meet organisational expectations contribute to their psychic or emotional security. On the other hand lack of sharing adequate job and organisational information with the subordinates, giving confliction instructions, bullying, keeping one against another (the practice of divide and rule) make the employees feel insecure on the job. Employees who feel insecure on the job may feel helpless, anxious and tense. They may attend to their duties in a routine way and not in creative or innovative ways. They may show rigidity in their thinking (the so called one track mind) and in action. They may not show creative- orientation characterized by fluency, flexibility, originality and utility. Fluency in thinking is to generate several ideas pertaining to a problem. Flexibility is the ability to shift one’s mental prospective which is necessary for coming out with new workable ideas which have tremendous potentialities in terns of their utility value. It helps to look at the problems from different angles and to evaluate the alternatives for the choice of best alternative. Originality refers to novelty of idea, an idea which is never conceived before. Utility is the spin off effects which refer to the wide range of the application of the idea, a creative mind has hit at.

Social or affiliative needs
Man is a social animal. He is interested to be with people, to seek belongingness and to seek acceptance and approval by the group. On the job situation, social needs are expressed as the need to seek attention, the need to like others and to be liked by others, the desire to have people around who care for each other, the need to be a member of a work group, the need to do something in common with other members, the desire to help and be helped, the desire to work with shared understanding of each other’s roles and responsibilities and contributions, the desire to work in an atmosphere of friendliness, understanding and co-operation among colleagues rather than in an atmosphere of conflict and rivalry, the desire to have informal, friendly, approachable and understanding superiors and so on.

Self-esteem or ego needs
These needs include the needs for status or the desire to feel important, the need for freedom – the desire for independent thought and action, the need to influence others, the desire for participation in organisational activities, the desire for assuming responsibility, the expectations for recognition and rewarding of good work etc. Employees develop self confidence and feel that they are important persons (self-esteem or proper self image), when the above needs are satisfied.

Self actualisation needs
These needs express in the form of desire to realize one’s potentialities. In the context of work, these needs show up as the desire to seek competitive situations to do a job well, to seek difficult and challenging tasks which require original and deep thinking, and high abilities (rather than preferring routine task), the desire to set goals of moderate difficulty, the strong desire to succeed, the desire for freedom to try out one’s special skills and abilities, the desire to know, to learn and to become expert in the field etc. In the advance stage of self-actualisation, the person aspires to become more and more of what he is capable of.

Hierarchy of needs
Maslow found that the above categories of needs follow a hierarchical order. The order which these needs follow are physiological, safety, social, self-esteem and self actualisation. This means that the needs at a particular level are evoked only if the needs at the lower level are reasonably satisfied. The security needs express for satisfaction only if the physiological needs are reasonably satisfied. Social needs express only if physiological and security needs are reasonably satisfied. Self-esteem needs operate only if physiological security and social needs are reasonable satisfied. Finally, self-actualisation needs become potent only if physiological, security, social and self-esteem needs are reasonably satisfied.

Though all these categories of needs operate in a person, all these do not operate all the time. Persons show different predominant need-orientations in different times. Motivational attempts to be successful, should be directed to the predominant need-orientation of the persons.

The above categories of needs can be classified into two broad group viz. lower order needs and higher order needs. Physiological, security, social and some of self esteem needs (such as the need for status and power) belong to lower order needs. Other needs belong to self-esteem category such as freedom, responsibility, the desire for recognition etc. and the self-actualisation needs belong to higher order needs. The lower order needs are also called as deficiency needs and the higher order needs are termed as growth needs. The deficiency needs motivate a person only when the needs are in a state of dissatisfaction and when the person sees the possibility of satisfaction of those needs, when he puts in his effort. For instance, a person works because he wants money in the form of salary. When he is assured of his salary, it ceases to be a motivator. He may raise his expectations. He may aspire for a merit increment. He may work hard to qualify for the merit increment. Once he receives the merit increment, he may stop working hard, till he perceives the possibility of securing some other gain. In other words, these needs motivate a person when he feels deprivation of these needs. The satisfaction of the growth needs on the other hand, inspires the person to make continuous improvement of his performance.

To types of motivations
People act in particular ways either to satisfy some to their needs or to avoid possible deprivation of the satisfaction of some needs. The first is called ‘approach motivation’ and the second is called ‘avoidance motivation’. A person may work hard on his job because he enjoys the kind of work he does that he experiences satisfaction in his relationships with his boss and work mates and his work is duly rewarded. In other words, he works hard, because his job is a source of satisfaction of many of his needs. Such a person is said to be under the influence of ‘approach motivation’. Contrast this person with another person who works and meets the expectations of his boss, to avoid disapproval or punishment for his boss and from the top management. He wants to stay in the job and wants not to create a situation in which disciplinary actions are initiated against his. ‘Avoidance motivation’ is operating in him. He may show minimum commitment to his job and get away by doing minimum to enjoy life outside. Employees who are subjected to coercive, authoritarian or punitive type of leadership show avoidance motivation. Coercive, authoritarian leader evokes fear in his subordinates through criticisms and reprimands and by keeping impersonal relationships with his subordinates. His subordinates experience fear, helplessness, anxiety, tension and rigidity. Avoidance motivation is certainly not conducive for creativity.

Nurturing scientific creativity
The creativity of the persons depends upon their personalities, which they had developed as result of childhood, family, school and other social influences and the kind of organisational environment in which they are working. Creative scientists show certain behavioural characteristics or what is called personality. The following are some of the characteristics:

Love for complexity, bold independent judgement, questioning attitude, fertility of ideas, openness to feed back, the desire to develop sense of mastery over the situations, high degree of self-confidence, the inclinations to solve problems, the desire to undertake tasks and problems for solution which tax their abilities, the ability to see a new relationship in regard to objects and events , the ability to work through a problem with persistence, the ability to shift perspective or the ability to see a problem from different angles, ability to generate a number of alternate solutions to a problem, desire to undertake tasks and looking for evaluation of performance in those tasks, desire to undertake tasks and looking for evaluation of performance in those tasks, desire to undertake activities in which there are chances for both winning and losing or desire to undertake competitive type of activities or tendency to take moderate risk, desire for success, the desire to effect improvements in things of utilities, the desire to make human work and living easier, better and so on.

Impact of work environment
A punitive work environment can instill in the minds of bench level scientists fear, fear of failure, and helplessness and invoke avoidance motivation. On the other hand, an organisational environment that encourages risk taking and experimentation may stimulate a strong pioneering or innovative effort. Democratic atmosphere characterized by freedom of expression and debate on different view points instills a good deal of mental flexibility. A work culture characterized by discontent with status quo or restlessness with current state of affairs and deep rooted urge to come out with something new, encouragement of reading and intensive preparation to gain mastery in a particular field, and experimental outlook (or thinking in terms of causes which can be controlled and effects and not attributing the occurrence of any phenomenon to chance or super natural power) may help the scientists to come out with innovations. For the flow of creative ideas, the deferred evaluation principle should be followed. That is, people should be encouraged to express as many ideas as come to their mind, without making attempt to get these ideas evaluated prematurely by other people.

The work environment can also suppress creativity. A number of studies have brought out factors which hinder creativity. The most commonly agreed upon factors are unsupportive leaders (bosses) and colleagues, rigid adherence to rules, no rewards and recognition for creativity, risk avoidance, resource shortage, too much centralization and too much emphasis on hierarchy. Intrinsic rewards such as those related to self-actualisation (viz. challenging work, learning and development, opportunity to utilize one’s special skills and abilities) rather than extrinsic rewards such as salary and perks, status and attractive designations, well furnished office etc., stimulate creativity. When the people are primarily motivated to do some creative activity, because of their interest and enjoyment of that activity, they may be more creative than when they work because of some goal imposed on them by others.

Leadership
Leadership is a process of influencing people. A leader is one who has people who listen to him or who behave in ways that meet his expectations. When a superior in an organisational exercises his leadership skills, he is able to get best out of his subordinates. The leader brings people together to work for the common goals of the organisational. In research and development organisations, people having such designations as Project co-ordinators, Area chairman, Section heads and Department heads can play leadership roles.

Leadership consists of certain skills, attitudes, acts or behaviours on the part of people in leadership positions towards others whose work they supervise or oversee and who make others to follow then willingly or which make them to work well or to put in their best on the job. Leadership can be developed by training and practice. When a group of people are working together, there is nearly always an element of uncertainty and confusion in the group. The leader reduces uncertainty and confusion and brings about certain order, stability and predictability of group activities that serve some common organisational objectives. Leader enables the group to keep its focus on organisational goals or objectives. Exercise of leadership on the part of superiors in their relationships with their subordinates helps them and their organisations to get best out of people. It helps in effective utilization of human resources for the organisational benefits. Scholars have tried to study the behaviours of leaders and their effectiveness in terms of willingness of the subordinates to put in their best, willingness to assume responsibility for results and experiences of personal and group satisfactions, Attempts have been to classify leadership behaviour. The following classification is one example of attempts to classify leader behaviour.
The categories of leader behaviours and the specific acts included under each category are:
(1) representation, that is, speaking and acting as representative of the group
(2) demand reconciliation, that is reconciling conflicting demands and reducing disorder and maintain closely knit teams in the group,
(3) tolerance of uncertainty,
(4) persuasiveness, that is, using persuasive arguments or using data and information, and using listening with understanding, making the other person feel important by appreciating his strengths and the needed change is made in the form of suggestions as opposed to imposing superiors’ ideas and views on his subordinates, (5) initiating structure, that is, defining one’s role and letting subordinates know what is expected of them. At one extreme, it might deciding for his subordinates as to what they should and how, by himself or giving them specific work assignments. At the other, it may assume the form of making decisions jointly regarding the duties and accountability of subordinates,
(6) tolerance of freedom, that is, the superior may direct the work of their subordinates closely or they may allow them sufficient freedom and discretion on the job. He may allow the subordinates to follow their individual styles of work so long as they feel accountable to the outcomes of their efforts,
(7) role assumption, that is, actively exercising leadership roles rather than being mere messenger between top management and lower levels,
(8) consideration, that is, some leaders may be friendly, informal, approachable and helpful. Other may by formal and may keep a distance form subordinates. Some may be bullying and critical. They may point out mostly mistakes committed by their subordinate and what they have not done. Other leaders may recognize what good work they have done and guide them to correct their mistakes by creating an opportunity for them for learning experience and
(9) production emphasis, that is, stress on performing better, inspiring people to put much greater efforts, setting high performance goals for one self and for others, encouraging to achieve higher and higher levels of achievements etc.

A number of scholars have also talked about the so called leadership styles. For instance, the three types of leadership style viz. Authoritarian, Democratic or Participative and Laissez-faire are the ones that are commonly talked about. This classification is in terms of the extent of controls exercised by the superiors over their subordinates and the kind of sanctions, reward and punishments used by the leaders.

An authoritarian leader takes all the decisions by himself and enforce strict compliance to his instructions among his subordinates. They are superior to their subordinates in all respects. They keep their subordinates largely under their control. The initiative, questioning attitudes, original thinking, exercising freedom, assumption of responsibility and development of internal or self control are not encouraged among the subordinates. Some authoritarian leaders may behave with their subordinates like regimentarian parents do towards their children, others may behave like an overprotective parents towards their children.

Regimentarian parents make their children to conform to their wishes through punishments – through scolding. Over protective parents who have benevolent attitudes towards their children do everything for them rather than allowing them to do independent thinking and grow in taking responsibility.

Some authoritarian leaders may keep social distance from their subordinates. In other words, they may not be informal, friendly and easily approachable. They may invoke fear response or feelings of fear in the minds of their subordinates. They may be very sharp in their criticisms and they mostly show reproof i.e. try to point out flaws in one’s work and direct their criticisms against the persons. In other words, they offend the feelings of the persons whom they criticize. This is in contrast to directing the criticisms at the task level.

The person who adopts democratic or participative style of leadership believes that their power to influence comes from the very people whom he supervises. He believes in the capacities of his subordinates and the need to realase their energies by creating for them an appropriate environment. In other words he has a better understanding and appreciation of the principle of motivation. He is not conscious of his authority, rank etc. Neither does he show his position power in his day to day transactions with his people. He uses his authority only in extreme cases, say to bring in line those who show gross indiscipline. He trusts the abilities and good intentions of his people and his subordinates repay him for the confidence he has in them. He feels that his success as the Project co-ordinator or Area co-ordinator lies in getting the people under him to be at their best in their work. He provides them with sense of emotional security, encourages their initiative, allows them freedom of thought and action, encourages team spirit, encourages them to achieve higher and higher levels of achievement, provides them with opportunity for training, learning, development and continuous growth and acknowledge their contributions through verbal appreciation, recommending their cases for merit increments, promotions, awards, honours etc. He becomes a ‘Role model’ for his subordinates by becoming a scientist of standing and reputation. In terms of his interest in the profession, because of scholarly, versatile, hard working nature, integrity and other qualities, he becomes a person to be admired and to be respected by his subordinates.
A Laissez-faire leader interferes minimum with the activities of the group he is supervising. He leaves his subordinates to do whatever they think is appropriate. He leaves his subordinates to do whatever they think is appropriate. He acts only as a messenger to carry information from the top to the employees and to communicate to the top the messages from the employees. In other words, he is absent, while he is present. He abdicates his leadership position. Under this leadership climate, there is hardly any team work and people experience frustration and tension, when they carry out work, which requires appreciations of each other’s needs.

It is apparent that the participative style of leadership is the best for of leadership for promoting scientific creativity.

The following are some of the specific leadership acts on the part of leader which help the promotion of creativity in R&D organisations:

(1) Developing a healthy social climate in the work place
A superior can develop a healthy social climate in the work place by behaving himself in certain ways with his subordinates and also be emphasizing certain kinds of behaviors which the scientists in division should display towards each other.

The behaviour of the superior
Superiors should appear friendly, informal and easily approachable to subordinates. In their work related interaction, they should reveal warmth and personal touch. They should provide them with emotional security by making them feel the feeling of being accepted members. Patient hearing of what they say and trying to put oneself in their positions, taking them seriously, not making and remarks that hurt their feelings, listening to their problems and showing generally a helpful attitude and treating all the subordinates alike or not discrimination against any one and not favouring any one (or not showing any special consideration to any one) would contribute to the development of emotional security and the feeling of being accepted. The superiors should give constructive criticism, in the sense that they should not only point out their mistakes, but also give specific suggestions to correct them, with facts and figures. They also should not direct the comments towards the persons, but towards the tasks. They should make clear to the members of the team that they are interested in their growth and development and should actually work for the growth and development of people under them. When their subordinates feel that their superiors are interested in their growth and development, they accept their criticisms and use the informations or improving their performance.

Peer behaviours
The leader should try to develop a healthy climate of peer behaviours. Peer behaviours are behaviours of scientists who are not in super-subordinate relationships. They are often called colleagues. Scientists belonging to the same grade working in one or other project teams are the peers. The behaviours of peers towards each other should contribute to their feeling of emotional security and that of being important persons, doing worth while work. They should behave with each other with personal touch. They should value each other and each other’s contributions, should show positive interest in what each one in the division is doing and be able to help each other by sharing their ideas and experiences (positive feed back) and by inspiring each other to do original thinking and penetrative analysis. The leader should not allow conflicts, rivalry and power play to develop between members or within groups. Free flow of communication between people and within groups and committees, without the tendency for premature evaluation should be encouraged.

(2) Developing team sprit
Teams are so important in innovative organisations. The peer pressure is a very important means of control. That is, the members of a project team can exert subtle pressure on each other in acceptable ways making each member to do their best. The individual members also do their best because of their identification with the team and team goals. Thus, it is important that the leader attempts to build up well knit teams by using the following strategies:

Allowing members to participate in project activities; giving the team as a whole sufficient freedom in taking decisions; monitoring; performance of members; by encouraging to appreciate and meet each other’s needs and expectations; to give and receive help; to stimulate each other’s thinking; to build upon each other’s ideas; to recognize each other’s contributions and to take decisions based on consensus.

(3) Building self-esteem and self confidence of the members
The confidence in the capabilities of members should be built up by holding high opinions of their knowledge and abilities, by allowing them freedom of thought, by soliciting and accepting their ideas, by giving them opportunity for learning and increasing their competence, by encouraging the to work in the areas of their special interests and by acknowledging their contributions.

(4) Developing a creative, stimulating and problem solving work climate
A creative and stimulating work climate is to be created by the superior by encouraging questioning attitude, experimentations, stimulating thinking and problem solving through brain storming sessions, developing desire to continuously improve one’s knowledge through reading, encouraging mutual sharing of ideas and training members to give and receive feed back.

In summary, an attempt is made in this paper to discuss the nature and dynamics of work motivation, the effect of leadership on work motivation, and certain aspects of leader behaviours which help to develop a creative work environment.

Thougths

2004-10-21T03:19:00.000-07:00

Thougths
Dr.A.Sreekumar Menon, Psychologist & H.R.D Consultant

Generally, people are busy in day to day living . They are neck –deep in indulging in the so called sensous pleasures, with out being guided by the so called conscience or sense of righteousness or sense of what is right and what is wrong. They believe in the philosophy that the end justifies the means. If the ourcome is pleasurable, there is no question whether the means are ethical or not .. They remain staus quo, in the sense that they keep enjoying the comforts of the world made possible by others hard work . They remain lethargic and do not put in any effort to bring in any positive change. They resit any change for the better for themselves and forrthe society at large . In other words, they remain as parasites to society and deadwood to progressThey do not use the normal creative potentialities, which the man is endowed with and which is a devine gift . But amdst these people, there are others who are impatient with status quo condition of society. They are people who are inspired by higher levels of their consciousness , who are creative and original in their thinking and who are guided by ethical and moral forces in their actions\, who strive to bring about changes which are progressive and righteousness. Lord Krishna, Jesus Christ,Prospect Mohamad, Lord Budha are examples of such personalities who redeemed the world from moral and material degradation, Even in modern times we had such great souls like Mahathma Gandhi , Viboabhave, Martin Luther King , Abraham Lincon and so on . . Among ourselvestoo, there are such blessed souls , though, they may be lesser tsouls compared to those cited above , who stive to bring about positive changes in uindividuals and society .They meet with criticism and opposition from people . They are seen as men with angularities or idiosyncracies. But these men of staure stay firm like hard rock on their convictions and their consequent action. Their sprit of righteousness and altruism fluel their motivation and enthusiasm. They once ignored come to be heard.

In Bagavad GeethaChapet4,Transcendental knowledge, verse no4 conveys the same message as above, The verseis: yada yeda hi dharmasya Glanir bhavathi bharatha Abhyuthanam adharmasya Tadatmanamsrijamyaham Meaning-when ever and where ever there is decline and decay of righteousness,o Bharatha, then I manifest myself”In all such dark periods of history, some great master comes to present himselfas the leader ofmen to revive the standard of life and moral values This is generally done not bu giving fillip to the existing nobler values, but also by a corresponding policy of total elimination of the wicked.
( Swami Chinmayananda in Holy Geetha)

The author can be contacted to this address
Email:Santhasree2000@yahoo.com
Residence No: 080 – 25341374
Mobile no: 9845770744
D-1, Malnad Mansion Maruthi NagarPost New Thippasandra
Bangalore – 560 075

Cigarette Smoking – A very Serious Health Hazard

2004-10-21T03:17:00.000-07:00

Cigarette Smoking – A very Serious Health Hazard
Dr.A.Sreekumar Menon
Psychologist & H.R.D Consultant

We pick up cigarette smoking habit unaware of it deleterious consequences to our health. We develop this habit due to physiological, psychical/psychological and social reasons. The physiological reason is that the nicotine contained in the cigarette stimulates our brain and the smoker feels well being. Or it appears to be a pleasurable experience, though short lived. Psychical reason is that it releases one from mental and emotional tension, For instance when a person is under the pressure of work, he develops tension experience of discomfort. When one gets conditioned to it, whenever one is under tension, immediately the tendency is to take to smoking. As the disabled person takes himself to crèches. In other words, it is due to inner weakness and lack of mental courage to face the objective situation which is stress inducing. Same psychodynamic mechanism works in the case of those who are alcohol or drug dependent. When a person is able to remove stress by being one calm and composed by practicing Relaxation techniques, Meditation etc will be able to stop smoking. A smoker being a smoker fulfils his need to be independent, though it is unhealthy way of satisfying this human need. During adolescence, the person is rebellious of the authority and crave for being independent. By smoking he proclaims to the world that he has overgrown dependency of his childhood and become independent as adult. Social factors are imitation of peers, to give them company etc. A person may pick up the habit when he is in the circle of his friends. In Indian culture, smoking symbolizes manliness. Or masculinity smoking is not a part of feminine culture in India as in other countries. Women generally do not smoke.

In addition to those factors outlined above, the youths do not know precisely about the possible health hazards of smoking. They are not exposed to health education in a convincing way. If the youth are taken to hospitals treating cancer and Lung diseases a. shown the X rays of patients, are told about the ill effect and if they are made to see the patients suffering, the message will be convincing to them and will deter them from smoking.

The ill effects of SmokingSmoking affects lungs, heart and other systems of the body and reduces life span. The diseases of the lungs are Asthma, or difficulty in breathing and oxygen shortage in the inhaled air with its attendant effect on the functioning of heart, direct effect on heart due to de-oxygenation of blood, leading to heart attack, deposition of plaques in the arterial walls causing high blood pressure and subsequent heart failure, It has been found that the burnt paper coating in the cigarette can give rise to carcinogens which can cause lung cancer for which no effective remedy is available now .. A high percent of patients with Lung Cancer has a long history of Tobacco use like cigarette smoking, Tobacco chewing etc.

In summary all steps should be taken to help the people not to take to smoking

The author can be contacted to this address
Email:Santhasree2000@yahoo.com
Residence No: 080 – 25341374
Mobile no: 9845770744
D-1, Malnad Mansion Maruthi NagarPost New ThippasandraBangalore – 560 075

Stress & Human Health

2004-10-21T03:13:00.000-07:00

Stress & Human Health
Dr.A.Sreekumar Menon
Psychologist & H.R.D Consultant

“Stress” is commonly understood as feelings of tension and discomfort. It is often used to mean distress. In fact stress does not mean distress alone. It can also mean a state of intense experience of pleasant emotions, for instance, the joy a student experiences when he hears about his creditable success in an examination. Some psychologists have used the term “Eustress” to denote this creative tension. Stress or distress is a reaction of a person to a real or perceived threat to oneself in the environment. It develops readiness to deal with the conditions that cause stress.

Stress is accompanied by heightened physiological activities like increased heart beat, increased pulse rate, slowing of digestion, etc. To the extent that it serves as a warning signal and helps the person to mobilise his energies, it is normal. But, if the stress reaction is prolonged or if the person experiences stress too often, depending on the personality of the person, it can lead to a number of diseases as well as mental problems.

Some of the health conditions which prolonged stress can cause are heart problems, high blood pressure, excessive sweating, digestive problems (such as lack of appetite, diarrhoea, constipation) nausea and vomiting, headache, and pains and aches in the body, sleep disturbances, complaints of vision, memory disturbances etc. There may be loss of body weight. Suppression of immune system resulting in increasing susceptibility to disease can occur.
Skin allergy, impotence in males and infertility in females, premature greying of hair and again, tendency for over-eating and consequent obesity are other changes which may be seen.
Some of the mental symptoms are anxiety, tension, depression, nervousness, getting irritated easily, feeling constantly under pressure, impatient, or feeling run out of energy.
Loss of interest in activities, inabilities to concentrate on any activity, losing confidence in oneself, being touchy, suggestible and heavily dependent on others, feelings of hostility, hatred, jealousy and rivalry, showing inertia, and always complaining of sickness of one kind or other may occur. Some of the above opposite feelings and impulses can alternate in expression. For example, a person may be hostile at one moment and withdrawing and depressed at another. Persons under stress can also take to excessive smoking and drinking and to drugs.
Let us examine the characteristics of a relatively stress-free state. Some of these are feeling relaxed, energetic, confident and hopeful; general feeling of satisfaction with one’ day-to-day life and, sense of purpose. There will be a feeling of control over events and circumstances or the feeling that one can make things happen.

The person is able to get absorbed in an activity; take an interest and get involved in whatever activity one is engaged in; keeps calm, cool and composed when a problem situation presents itself; and has the ability to renew energy and mood through rest. He or she is aware of their own strengths and weaknesses. The individual is able to keep an overall positive image of oneself. He or she experiences the desire to work hard and tries and achieves goals in life. There is the ability to adjust socially and to get absorbed in hobbies, and creative pursuits. How can we prevent or minimise stress and stay in a relatively stress-free state most of the time? There are several methods one can adopt. Let me describe three classes of individual strategies for coping with stress.

1. Application of mental health principles in our life.
2. Prayer, meditation, yoga and exercises of relaxation
3. Providing healthy outlet to our emotions and impulses by participation in sports and games and other physical exercises and following hobbies and creative pursuits.

Application of mental health principlesWe should not allow ourselves to be overpowered by problems. We should approach problems with a calm and mind squarely. Develop the habit of analysing problems factually without emotionalising. Be ready for action. Do not be heavily preoccupied with the consequences of action. A person who is ready for action is less likely to experience prolonged stress than a lethargic person. Too much preoccupation with the possible outcome of one’s action disturbs the equanimity of one’s mind and one is not able to act appropriately.

We know that a student who broods over the possible results of an examination is not able to concentrate on his or her studies. Development of the feeling of failure while confronting a problem, leads to stress. Instead of a fear of failure, we should develop a sense of success, by reassuring ourselves and deriving inspiration from our past success and achievements. While confronting a problem, we should think of instances of our past success. We will find that we are more confident in facing a new problem.

Reading success stories of great people can also be helpful in empowering one’s mind. Proper balancing of aspirations and achievements can help to keep oneself free from stress. We should aspire to only that which we can achieve with our own best efforts. Aspirations should always follow effort.

Prayer and meditationPrayer and meditation help us to minimise stress. While in prayer, we focus our attention on a Divine Symbol and relieve our body from the weight of our impulses, conflicting motives and other negative emotions and allow it to work in its natural rhythm. The same effects can be achieved, if we sit quiet in a place close our eyes and focus on the rhythmic beat of our heart or the rhythmic movement of our lungs.

Western scholars have brought out a number of relaxation exercises such as Jacobson’s Progressive Relaxation Technique, Bio-Feedback and the exercises, proposed by Hans Selye given in his book Stress without Distress.

Providing healthy outlet to emotions and impulses Regular daily exercises, playing games and participating in sports help to work out the accumulated tension. In addition it builds up the personality which is empowered to resist stress. Of course one should be serious in participating in these activities, in the sense that one should enjoy these activities.

Spending time on hobbies and in creative pursuits also help to sublimate the conflicting impulses and in turn to relieve oneself of tension. Spending some time with pets like dogs and cats can also help to relieve oneself of tension induced by stress, as these animals respond to human love and affection.

In short, one should adopt a life style which is not stress inducing and also involve in certain activities, which help to absorb the stress.

Masters or Victim

2004-10-21T03:11:00.000-07:00

Masters or Victim
Dr.A.Sreekumar Menon
Psychologist & H.R.D Consultant

Visited a shopping Mall in Ann Arbor, Michigan, U.S.A. Big shopping centers are called as Shopping Malls in U.S.A. It is a big hall-a hall having large area, where innumerable things are stacked. People can go around and pick up the things of their choice. The area is so vast, that it is difficult to cover the area by walk particularly for those who have some physical debility. Those who want can use small powered vehicle to go round, which is provided by the shopping center free. I also have seen persons using their own, which they attach to their cars and in which they get into when they arrive for shopping. What happens when we go round?. Things stacked in numerous varieties bewitch our eyes and we are confused as to what all things we should buy and what all we should not buy. In fact we feel we should buy every thing. At the same time our purchasing capacity warns us from picking up things as we wish. Thus there is conflict between our desire to purchase and warning we receive against purchasing. We are torn between our desire to purchase the things which attract us and our financial limitations. Similar is the case of our other possessions, We want to have the latest things. Once we buy a thing, its charm is lost and our eyes fall on something new which we have not acquired. This process goes on and on, leaving us in perpetual dissatisfaction and discomfort and distress. This disease affects both rich and poor equally.

The main reason for this is our lack of control over our mind. We allow our mind to run after objects of pleasure just like a thirty person in a dessert runs towards mirage, with the hope that he will get water to quench his thrust, which he can not resist. Even people who are used to a life of austerity may be tempted to seek luxuries, when they are in an environment of material affluence and may join the above rat race, unless they have adequate inner strength, intellectual maturity and full development of their personalities.

When man strives to experienced more and more of the so called creature comforts, what happens is that it results in sorrows, disappointments, feeling of insecurity, feeling of stress, feelings of helplessness and so on. It is a fact that happiness or sorrow does not depend upon external circumstances, but it is our subjective experience. For example, for a non-vegetarian, Chicken curry gives happiness, but for a vegetarian, it is an aversion. It is said that one man’s food is another man’s poison. From this point of view, no one, however rich he may be he may be should not think that he is superior to another who is not so rich but content with his modest living. In fact a rich person who lives beyond his means is more unhappy than a person of modest means.

The yardstick for measuring whether a person is low or high should be his ability to see divinity in him and in others. God is in each one of us. But we have to discover him Just like a man who is drowning can not see the land above water, so also a person neck deep in seeking external sources of joy and comforts can not see God. When pleasure seeking humanity fails to experience real pleasure, it gets frustrated. As a result, it takes to aggression, violence, self-aggrandizement etc. Science and Technology gives us tools which we can use for peaceful or destructive purposes, depending upon for what purpose we want to use. Humanity incapable of adjusting itself to exigencies of the situation brought about the rank materialistic mode of life uses the tools for its own destruction. That is what we find today happening in most parts of the world. What is required to save humanity from this self-destruction is cultural revolution in which there is acceptance and practice of human values such as love, understanding, accommodation, sprit of cooperation, sprit of working for the common good, sharing of common stake in the global progress and peace etc. In other words, give utmost importance to human life and human beings. These human values are very much an integral part of ancient culture and Philosophy of all nations, passed on to us from time immemorial. It is up to us to rediscover them and assimilate those in our daily lives. If we do so, a better tomorrow will be waiting for us.

The author can be contacted to this address
Email:Santhasree2000@yahoo.com
Residence No: 080 – 25341374
Mobile no: 9845770744
D-1, Malnad Mansion Maruthi NagarPost New ThippasandraBangalore – 560 075