Are you interested in working as an office manager? If you are, you may be ready to start applying for jobs. Before doing so, it is important to know what being an office manager entails. This can be done by examining a few of the many common job responsibilities of office managers.
One of the most common tasks performed by office managers is that of management. Many office managers are responsible for overseeing and supervising other office personnel. Management is most commonly a responsibility of office managers that are employed by larger companies. Office managers are usually responsible for giving staff members projects to complete, answering questions concerning those projects, as well as making sure that all employees are able to meet their deadlines.
Word processing is another task that is regularly performed by office managers. Office managers are known for typing up and distributing important company documents and memos. These documents and memos may be for other employees, customers, or both. Office managers may also spend a good portion of their time searching the internet or using office management software to help find professional company templates for important forms and documents, such as company invoices, faxes, and so forth.
Another one of the many tasks performed by office managers involves answering incoming telephone calls. These telephone calls are most commonly answered and processed by office managers who are limited on the number of office employees they oversee. In larger companies, office managers would not likely be responsible for answering all incoming telephone calls, as there is usually a customer service department designed especially for doing so.
Training new employees is another job responsibility of many office managers. In fact, depending on the company in question, an office manager may have a large number of human resource responsibilities. These responsibilities may include accepting and sorting job applications and resumes, setting up and conducting job interviews, as well as making all new hire decisions. Office managers may also be responsible for terminating workers who do not meet or exceed company standards.
The above mentioned job responsibilities are just a few of the many responsibilities of office managers. If you are looking for a career in office management, it is advised that you first do a little bit of research. As outlined above, not all office managers have the same job responsibilities. These responsibilities often depend on the company in question, as well as its size. Since job responsibilities often play an important role in the skills or experience needed be an office manager, you will want to do as much research as possible.
One of the best ways to know if you are qualified for an office management job is to thoroughly examine the job listing. This job listing will not only outline any job or training requirements that the hiring company has, but they may also outline common job responsibilities. These responsibilities, tasks, and duties, can give you an idea as to whether or not the office management job in question is one that you are willing to accept.
As a reminder, not all office management jobs are the same. If you would like to work in office management, but are unsure if you possess the skills needed to do so, you may want invest in a number of office management training courses. For reasonable attendance fees, these courses can give you the training and experience that you need to succeed in the field of office management.
Here one can find a large collection of useful articles.These articles can be very useful to people of all walks of life,especially THE YOUTH! HAPPY READING & ALL THE BEST.Some of the Articles Contributed by Dr.A.Sreekumar Menon,Psychologist, Author of Award Winning Management Brooks and Management Consultant.
11 May 2009
Common Office Management Mistakes
If you are looking to find an office management job or if you were recently promoted to office manager, you may be feeling proud and excited, as you should be. With that in mind, it is also important to focus on the tasks at hand. Office management can be rewarding, but it can also be demanding. In this type of environment, it is easy to make mistakes. A few common office management mistakes, namely ones that you will want to avoid making, are outlined below for your convenience.
One of the biggest mistakes made in office management is making drastic changes or too many changes right away. This is most often seen with new hires or office managers that are new to a particular company. Although you will want to effectively run your office and do so in your own way, it is advised that you pace yourself. Gradual changes are often the best, for everyone involved. This will help to easily transition your workers. With that in mind, be sure to make all changes needed, but do so with the right approach.
Being everyone’s friend is another one of the many mistakes made by office managers, especially those that are new. Many individuals confuse workplace relationships with friendships or even romantic relationships. If your office management job requires the supervising of others, it is important to establish yourself as a supervisor. Yes, you will want to act and appear human, but is important that your approaches are professional in nature. When working as an office manager, your concerns should be focused on workplace issues, such as sexual harassment, not who is currently dating who inside or outside of the office.
Not taking responsibility for your actions is another mistake that you will not want to make, as an office manager. As stated before, office management is demanding. It is not uncommon for you to have your own tasks, as well as be responsible for overseeing others and their projects. This is often what leaves room for errors or excuses. As an office manager, it is advised that you do not abuse your power. If you make a mistake that is brought to light, it is advised that you own up to that mistake. In the fast paced career world, many office managers can find themselves doing or saying things that they otherwise wouldn’t do or say. That is why it is advised that you always try and keep one foot on the ground, as they say.
A lack of communication is another mistake regularly made by office managers. While this may seem like common sense, it is important to remember that your coworkers and supervisors are not mind readers. That is why it is important to openly discuss all work related issues. Should you delegate work to others, make sure that your directions are clear and to the point. Should anyone need assistance, be sure to give it to them and in a timely matter. If you are a supervisor, which is likely the case in a large office setting, be sure that your staff members feel comfortable approaching you for assistance.
The mistakes outlined above are just a few of the many common mistakes made by office managers. To avoid these common office management mistakes and others, it is advised that you use your best judgment at all times.
One of the biggest mistakes made in office management is making drastic changes or too many changes right away. This is most often seen with new hires or office managers that are new to a particular company. Although you will want to effectively run your office and do so in your own way, it is advised that you pace yourself. Gradual changes are often the best, for everyone involved. This will help to easily transition your workers. With that in mind, be sure to make all changes needed, but do so with the right approach.
Being everyone’s friend is another one of the many mistakes made by office managers, especially those that are new. Many individuals confuse workplace relationships with friendships or even romantic relationships. If your office management job requires the supervising of others, it is important to establish yourself as a supervisor. Yes, you will want to act and appear human, but is important that your approaches are professional in nature. When working as an office manager, your concerns should be focused on workplace issues, such as sexual harassment, not who is currently dating who inside or outside of the office.
Not taking responsibility for your actions is another mistake that you will not want to make, as an office manager. As stated before, office management is demanding. It is not uncommon for you to have your own tasks, as well as be responsible for overseeing others and their projects. This is often what leaves room for errors or excuses. As an office manager, it is advised that you do not abuse your power. If you make a mistake that is brought to light, it is advised that you own up to that mistake. In the fast paced career world, many office managers can find themselves doing or saying things that they otherwise wouldn’t do or say. That is why it is advised that you always try and keep one foot on the ground, as they say.
A lack of communication is another mistake regularly made by office managers. While this may seem like common sense, it is important to remember that your coworkers and supervisors are not mind readers. That is why it is important to openly discuss all work related issues. Should you delegate work to others, make sure that your directions are clear and to the point. Should anyone need assistance, be sure to give it to them and in a timely matter. If you are a supervisor, which is likely the case in a large office setting, be sure that your staff members feel comfortable approaching you for assistance.
The mistakes outlined above are just a few of the many common mistakes made by office managers. To avoid these common office management mistakes and others, it is advised that you use your best judgment at all times.
Common Office Management Jobs
Are you searching for a new job or career? If you are, you may have heard of office management careers. Office management careers are ideal for many job seekers, but many are unsure as to exactly what jobs are out there. If you are one of those individuals, it is important to know that you have an unlimited number of options. Office management can take on a number of different formats.
When comes to examining the jobs that you can have, when searching for a career in office management, it is important to remember that there will be variances. The office management jobs that are you able to find will all vary, depending on a number of different factors. These factors include location and the number of hiring companies in the area. Despite the possibility of a variance, there are a number of common office management jobs that you are likely to come across in your search for a new job or career. A few of those jobs are outlined below.
Medical office management jobs are the most commonly advertised office management jobs. Those who work as office managers in medical offices often perform a wider range of tasks. These tasks can include overseeing office personnel, such as those who work in scheduling, medical billing, and so on. In addition to monitoring these individuals and their tasks, you may also have your own task list, which may include answering phone or sending out customer invoices. Due to fast paced nature of medicine and healthcare, office managers in medical offices are typically always on the go, with large to do lists.
Legal office management jobs are also commonly advertised jobs. As with medical management jobs, legal office management jobs typically involve the overseeing of a law firm. With that in mind, your duties will all depend on the size of the law firm in question. If you were employed by a small law firm, you may not necessarily have other office workers to oversee; therefore, your duties may focus solely on speaking with clients, arranging meetings, and payment processing. Large law firms, especially those in large cities, such as New York or Chicago, are actually know to employ multiple office managers.
Government office management jobs are another type of office management job regularly found advertised online or in newspapers. Government office management jobs are nice, but they can sometimes be difficult to acquire. Depending on the city, state, or county in which you live in, there may be certain rules and restrictions. For instance, it is common for city or county workers to have to live in the city or county that they are employed by. It is also common for government workers to take civil service exams, which they must pass. As far as job responsibilities go, many government office managers are required to oversee other office staff members, as well as perform their own duties, such as answering all incoming telephone calls.
The above mentioned office management jobs are just a few of the many that you may find, once you start your job search. With that in mind, it is important to remember that just about any company can hire an office manager. Any business that has an office, no matter how large or small it is, can benefit from the use of employing a professional office manager. That is why it is advised that you keep your eyes and ears open at all times, as you never really know when you may come across open office management positions.
Speaking of finding open office management jobs, there are a number of different approaches that you can take, aside from keeping your eyes and ears open at all times. The internet is a great way to find open office management jobs. Career search or job search websites enable you to search for jobs in a particular field, such as office management, and in a particular area, such as your hometown. You can also use career fairs and newspaper employment sections to help you find office management jobs.
When comes to examining the jobs that you can have, when searching for a career in office management, it is important to remember that there will be variances. The office management jobs that are you able to find will all vary, depending on a number of different factors. These factors include location and the number of hiring companies in the area. Despite the possibility of a variance, there are a number of common office management jobs that you are likely to come across in your search for a new job or career. A few of those jobs are outlined below.
Medical office management jobs are the most commonly advertised office management jobs. Those who work as office managers in medical offices often perform a wider range of tasks. These tasks can include overseeing office personnel, such as those who work in scheduling, medical billing, and so on. In addition to monitoring these individuals and their tasks, you may also have your own task list, which may include answering phone or sending out customer invoices. Due to fast paced nature of medicine and healthcare, office managers in medical offices are typically always on the go, with large to do lists.
Legal office management jobs are also commonly advertised jobs. As with medical management jobs, legal office management jobs typically involve the overseeing of a law firm. With that in mind, your duties will all depend on the size of the law firm in question. If you were employed by a small law firm, you may not necessarily have other office workers to oversee; therefore, your duties may focus solely on speaking with clients, arranging meetings, and payment processing. Large law firms, especially those in large cities, such as New York or Chicago, are actually know to employ multiple office managers.
Government office management jobs are another type of office management job regularly found advertised online or in newspapers. Government office management jobs are nice, but they can sometimes be difficult to acquire. Depending on the city, state, or county in which you live in, there may be certain rules and restrictions. For instance, it is common for city or county workers to have to live in the city or county that they are employed by. It is also common for government workers to take civil service exams, which they must pass. As far as job responsibilities go, many government office managers are required to oversee other office staff members, as well as perform their own duties, such as answering all incoming telephone calls.
The above mentioned office management jobs are just a few of the many that you may find, once you start your job search. With that in mind, it is important to remember that just about any company can hire an office manager. Any business that has an office, no matter how large or small it is, can benefit from the use of employing a professional office manager. That is why it is advised that you keep your eyes and ears open at all times, as you never really know when you may come across open office management positions.
Speaking of finding open office management jobs, there are a number of different approaches that you can take, aside from keeping your eyes and ears open at all times. The internet is a great way to find open office management jobs. Career search or job search websites enable you to search for jobs in a particular field, such as office management, and in a particular area, such as your hometown. You can also use career fairs and newspaper employment sections to help you find office management jobs.
Business Owners: Moneysaving Office Management Tips
Not all businesses are able to see success and profits right away. This includes businesses such as law offices, medical offices, or even retail stores. If you are looking to improve or expand your business, but while on a budget, you may be unsure as to how you should proceed. The good news is that there are a number of moneysaving steps that you can take to effectively have your office managed, even while on a budget.
One of the many ways that you can go about achieving perfect office management, but without having to spend a lot of money, involves promoting from within. This is ideal if you are looking to hire an office manager or an office supervisor. There is a good chance that you already employ a number of office workers, such as secretaries. For a reasonable pay increase, you may be able to give one of your qualified workers additional tasks, such as the task of managing the office as a whole.
Outsourcing some of your office management duties is another moneysaving approach that you may want to examine. With that in mind, it is important to remember that office management encompasses a wide range of tasks. If you are a small business owner or active in the day-to-day operations of your business, your office manager may not necessarily need to oversee or manage other workers. If that is the case, outsourcing may be easy for you. You can hire an outsourcing company or an outsourced worker to handle all incoming telephone calls, process payments, make appointments or reservations, and so froth. This may be cheaper for you to do than hiring an in-house office manager, especially if he or she would have limited job duties.
Investing in office management software is another moneysaving way to effectively manage your office or your business as a whole. Yes, you will need to pay for office management software and the cost can be quite high. With that in mind, it is important to consider the purchase an investment. In fact, the buying of office management software is actually an investment that you can easily see a return on, as it can pay for itself if used properly. Office management software combines a number of business programs all into one. These programs can be web based or shared on a network. This allows you and other office employees to create and share project tasks lists, and do so much more. Office management is known for its ability to save time, speed up productivity, and improve performance levels.
Another option that you have involves hiring temporary workers. Temporary workers are nice, as you can use them as needed. If you are interested in employing temporary workers, it is important to make their work status known up front. Many job seekers would prefer permanent employment, but there are others out there who can benefit from temporary employment. When hiring temporary employees, you can use the assistance of temporary staffing firms, the internet, or local newspaper employment sections.
The above mentioned approaches are just a few of the moneysaving approaches that you can take to bring effective office management into your business, but without having to incur large debts doing so. Additional moneysaving office management techniques can be found with a little bit of research, as well as through trial and error.
One of the many ways that you can go about achieving perfect office management, but without having to spend a lot of money, involves promoting from within. This is ideal if you are looking to hire an office manager or an office supervisor. There is a good chance that you already employ a number of office workers, such as secretaries. For a reasonable pay increase, you may be able to give one of your qualified workers additional tasks, such as the task of managing the office as a whole.
Outsourcing some of your office management duties is another moneysaving approach that you may want to examine. With that in mind, it is important to remember that office management encompasses a wide range of tasks. If you are a small business owner or active in the day-to-day operations of your business, your office manager may not necessarily need to oversee or manage other workers. If that is the case, outsourcing may be easy for you. You can hire an outsourcing company or an outsourced worker to handle all incoming telephone calls, process payments, make appointments or reservations, and so froth. This may be cheaper for you to do than hiring an in-house office manager, especially if he or she would have limited job duties.
Investing in office management software is another moneysaving way to effectively manage your office or your business as a whole. Yes, you will need to pay for office management software and the cost can be quite high. With that in mind, it is important to consider the purchase an investment. In fact, the buying of office management software is actually an investment that you can easily see a return on, as it can pay for itself if used properly. Office management software combines a number of business programs all into one. These programs can be web based or shared on a network. This allows you and other office employees to create and share project tasks lists, and do so much more. Office management is known for its ability to save time, speed up productivity, and improve performance levels.
Another option that you have involves hiring temporary workers. Temporary workers are nice, as you can use them as needed. If you are interested in employing temporary workers, it is important to make their work status known up front. Many job seekers would prefer permanent employment, but there are others out there who can benefit from temporary employment. When hiring temporary employees, you can use the assistance of temporary staffing firms, the internet, or local newspaper employment sections.
The above mentioned approaches are just a few of the moneysaving approaches that you can take to bring effective office management into your business, but without having to incur large debts doing so. Additional moneysaving office management techniques can be found with a little bit of research, as well as through trial and error.
An Office Management Software Buying Guide
Running an office can be a difficult task for any office manager. If you are a business owner, you may want to consider using office management software to assist your office manager. If you are an office manager, you may want to suggest office management software to your supervisor.
As nice as it is to hear that office management software can simplify many office management procedures, you may be curious as to how it is done. For starters, it is important to realize that office management software is designed to simplify the process of office management. This often involves integrating a number of computer software programs and features all into one program.
Before examining some of the many features found on office management software, it is important to remember that there is a variance. With that in mind, many office management software programs have easy to use email programs, downloadable and printable customer invoice templates, as well as customer payment record programs, document templates, editable to do lists, and much more. This easy access to important information and documents will allow your office manager and possibly other staff members to prioritize and improve their productivity.
If you like what office management software can do for you, you may want to start shopping right away. Before doing so, it is important to remember that office management software comes in a number of different formats. If this is your first time purchasing office management software, there are a number of points that you will first want to examine. These points, a few of which are outlined below, can help to ensure that the office management software program purchased is the software that is best for you, your business, and your office manager.
As previously stated, office management software comes in a number of different formats and different versions. It is important to choose a software program that you and your company can benefit from. That is why it is important to examine all software features. For instance, if you run a medical office, invoice templates and a payment tracking program may be needed software features. If your office is large is size, it may be best to choose an office management software program that involves networking all office computers together or a web-based program for home based workers or those who regularly travel.
In addition to seeing in print what services and features are included with the purchase of office management software, it is also important that you see for yourself. Many office management software suppliers have video tutorials that show you how the software program works or they should at least have screenshots for you to examine. Be on the lookout for software programs that seem too complicated to use, as they may not be in the best interest of your company or your office manager.
In keeping with examining office management software yourself, if you are able to find an office management software supplier who offers free trial periods, you are urged to accept their offer. Even if the free trial period is only for a week, it will give you or your office manager the opportunity to determine if you can profit from the use of the software program in question.
Another step that you should take, particularly before making any office management software purchases, is that of comparing prices. After a close examination, you will find that many office management software programs are sold by multiple suppliers or online vendors. Searching for the best deal will enable you and your business to achieve a larger return on your investment.
The above mentioned points are just a few of the many points that should be taken into consideration, when examining office management software. Even if you are unsure as to whether or not office management software is right for your business, it is advised that you and your office manager at least take the time to examine your options. You may be surprised with what you find.
As nice as it is to hear that office management software can simplify many office management procedures, you may be curious as to how it is done. For starters, it is important to realize that office management software is designed to simplify the process of office management. This often involves integrating a number of computer software programs and features all into one program.
Before examining some of the many features found on office management software, it is important to remember that there is a variance. With that in mind, many office management software programs have easy to use email programs, downloadable and printable customer invoice templates, as well as customer payment record programs, document templates, editable to do lists, and much more. This easy access to important information and documents will allow your office manager and possibly other staff members to prioritize and improve their productivity.
If you like what office management software can do for you, you may want to start shopping right away. Before doing so, it is important to remember that office management software comes in a number of different formats. If this is your first time purchasing office management software, there are a number of points that you will first want to examine. These points, a few of which are outlined below, can help to ensure that the office management software program purchased is the software that is best for you, your business, and your office manager.
As previously stated, office management software comes in a number of different formats and different versions. It is important to choose a software program that you and your company can benefit from. That is why it is important to examine all software features. For instance, if you run a medical office, invoice templates and a payment tracking program may be needed software features. If your office is large is size, it may be best to choose an office management software program that involves networking all office computers together or a web-based program for home based workers or those who regularly travel.
In addition to seeing in print what services and features are included with the purchase of office management software, it is also important that you see for yourself. Many office management software suppliers have video tutorials that show you how the software program works or they should at least have screenshots for you to examine. Be on the lookout for software programs that seem too complicated to use, as they may not be in the best interest of your company or your office manager.
In keeping with examining office management software yourself, if you are able to find an office management software supplier who offers free trial periods, you are urged to accept their offer. Even if the free trial period is only for a week, it will give you or your office manager the opportunity to determine if you can profit from the use of the software program in question.
Another step that you should take, particularly before making any office management software purchases, is that of comparing prices. After a close examination, you will find that many office management software programs are sold by multiple suppliers or online vendors. Searching for the best deal will enable you and your business to achieve a larger return on your investment.
The above mentioned points are just a few of the many points that should be taken into consideration, when examining office management software. Even if you are unsure as to whether or not office management software is right for your business, it is advised that you and your office manager at least take the time to examine your options. You may be surprised with what you find.
14 November 2007
Time Management Tips - Developing Good Email Habits
Time is your most precious resource when you work from home on
the Internet. If your Internet connection goes down or your
computer blows up, the situation can be remedied but if you
waste time, it is gone forever. If you fail to develop effective
time management techniques you will all too often find that the
hours you had intended to use productively have evaporated
without trace. Time, although free, is valuable and it is
irreplaceable: every second is unique and should be treated as
an important asset. You will only manage to save time if you
plan and employ your own personal time management strategy. We
all have different demands being made upon our time, so managing
to save time will be achieved in different ways by each of us.
There is, however, one sure way anyone working at home online
can manage to save time and that is by modifying the way we
treat our email.
The trouble with working online is that your email is always
just a click or two away at any time during your working day. If
you were running an offline business from home, your day would
be centered away from your computer and you would have to make a
conscious decision about when and how often to check your email.
When you are already sitting at your pc and connected to the
Internet, it is just too easy to forget all about time
management techniques and develop bad email habits. If you use
the following time management strategy, you will maintain
control of your working hours and find that you can easily get
more done in less time.
1. Set an email schedule for yourself. Make it a rule only to
check your inbox two or three times a day and set a strict time
limit (ten or fifteen minutes per session is about right) on how
long you spend dealing with email.
2. Don't check your email as soon as you power up your computer
at the start of any work session. You will be at your most alert
and creative during the first hour of work. Use this time to
complete more complicated or difficult tasks.
3. Don't have your email alert permanently on to notify you as
soon as an email hits your mailbox. This will serve to distract
you while you are working and tempt you to abandon the schedule
you have planned.
4. Deal with each email as soon as you read it. Flagging an
email and going back to it to send your reply makes double the
work. The only time you should permit yourself to do this is if
you need to do some research before you reply.
5. Use your bookmark function. You are bound to get emails that
contain a link to a website. Maybe you have subscribed to
interesting online news letters or they could be offers of
useful ebooks or tools. The time you have allocated to your
email session should be used solely for reading and replying to
emails. Bookmark any of the sites that appear worthy of further
investigation and schedule time for a visit. This is the most
dangerous part of dealing with emails: all commercial emails
will have a "hook" with which to catch you, drag you into a
black hole and make your time disappear. You must be alert to
this so that you can unhook yourself and visit these websites at
a time you decide is best for your schedule.
Developing good time management techniques is not difficult.
You do, however, need to be constantly on your guard against
temptations which might make you forget your time management
strategy. Developing good habits and curing bad ones is the
foundation of effective time management techniques.
About The Author: For time management tips and the best work at
home ideas visit Elaine Currie's Free Work At Home Directory
http://www.huntingvenus.com/
Please use the HTML version of this article at:
http://www.isnare.com/html.php?aid=178461
the Internet. If your Internet connection goes down or your
computer blows up, the situation can be remedied but if you
waste time, it is gone forever. If you fail to develop effective
time management techniques you will all too often find that the
hours you had intended to use productively have evaporated
without trace. Time, although free, is valuable and it is
irreplaceable: every second is unique and should be treated as
an important asset. You will only manage to save time if you
plan and employ your own personal time management strategy. We
all have different demands being made upon our time, so managing
to save time will be achieved in different ways by each of us.
There is, however, one sure way anyone working at home online
can manage to save time and that is by modifying the way we
treat our email.
The trouble with working online is that your email is always
just a click or two away at any time during your working day. If
you were running an offline business from home, your day would
be centered away from your computer and you would have to make a
conscious decision about when and how often to check your email.
When you are already sitting at your pc and connected to the
Internet, it is just too easy to forget all about time
management techniques and develop bad email habits. If you use
the following time management strategy, you will maintain
control of your working hours and find that you can easily get
more done in less time.
1. Set an email schedule for yourself. Make it a rule only to
check your inbox two or three times a day and set a strict time
limit (ten or fifteen minutes per session is about right) on how
long you spend dealing with email.
2. Don't check your email as soon as you power up your computer
at the start of any work session. You will be at your most alert
and creative during the first hour of work. Use this time to
complete more complicated or difficult tasks.
3. Don't have your email alert permanently on to notify you as
soon as an email hits your mailbox. This will serve to distract
you while you are working and tempt you to abandon the schedule
you have planned.
4. Deal with each email as soon as you read it. Flagging an
email and going back to it to send your reply makes double the
work. The only time you should permit yourself to do this is if
you need to do some research before you reply.
5. Use your bookmark function. You are bound to get emails that
contain a link to a website. Maybe you have subscribed to
interesting online news letters or they could be offers of
useful ebooks or tools. The time you have allocated to your
email session should be used solely for reading and replying to
emails. Bookmark any of the sites that appear worthy of further
investigation and schedule time for a visit. This is the most
dangerous part of dealing with emails: all commercial emails
will have a "hook" with which to catch you, drag you into a
black hole and make your time disappear. You must be alert to
this so that you can unhook yourself and visit these websites at
a time you decide is best for your schedule.
Developing good time management techniques is not difficult.
You do, however, need to be constantly on your guard against
temptations which might make you forget your time management
strategy. Developing good habits and curing bad ones is the
foundation of effective time management techniques.
About The Author: For time management tips and the best work at
home ideas visit Elaine Currie's Free Work At Home Directory
http://www.huntingvenus.com/
Please use the HTML version of this article at:
http://www.isnare.com/html.php?aid=178461
23 October 2007
Creating Breakthroughs
If all organizations were producing breakthroughs, we would be enjoying exponential increases in results. Did you know that creating such breakthroughs often requires a different focus than when making modest improvements?
How can we replace our normal improvement projects with breakthrough progress?
Breakthroughs usually take the combined sweat and tears of many people. But those efforts won’t bear fruit unless the right mix of skills and experience is involved, properly directed by exceptional leaders and by the right thought process.
Let me put this advice in context: It’s an important lesson for those who want to make lots of 2,000 percent solutions (ways of accomplishing 20 times more with the same time, effort, and resources).
The steps for creating a 2,000 percent solution are listed here:
1. Understand the importance of performance measurement.
2. Decide what to measure.
3. Identify the future best practice and measure it.
4. Implement beyond the future best practice.
5. Identify the ideal best practice.
6. Pursue the ideal best practice.
7. Select the right people and provide the right motivation.
8. Repeat the first seven steps.
This article looks at practicing to become more effective in accomplishing step seven, select the right people and provide the right motivation.
Recruit and Coach a Winning Team
People are the critical resource for any organization. Without the right people, it’s difficult to exceed the future best practice and approach the ideal best practice. Keep in mind that few people, no matter how talented, function well in a changing environment. Still fewer can work well on a team instituting changes. One unreasonable doubter can discourage a whole team. Someone who uses too much influence can stifle others. You’re looking to create a rare and delicate balance in your dream team of change makers.
Change? Over My Dead Body!
It might seem that the best way to implement any change is to work with those who know the job best — those who work with the process every day. But if big changes are needed, this approach isn’t always a good idea. Use only the old crew and you will probably run into a very serious foot-dragging stall. Even the most open minded workers lose their perspective over time. Experimental evidence shows that people new to a job have a much easier time with understanding the need for and enjoying the pursuit of changes. They can be taught whatever background they need to know without being stalled by it. The current crew can play devil’s advocate — to keep the new team honest, as it were. But don’t hold their experience against the current crew. Provide them with a new challenge in another part of the organization where they are unfamiliar with the operations.
You need very capable relative strangers to take on a change project, but they don’t have to be people from outside the organization. Look for as wide a range of perspective, skills, and knowledge as you can.
Build a Dream Team
You must find people who are energized or excited by a change. Your ideal team members must see change as a challenge that will help them grow personally. Select team members who will feel that being chosen to work on approaching the ideal best practice is the most wonderful thing that ever happened to them.
Beyond enthusiasm, what do you need? Open-mindedness. Take a cue from Abraham Maslow and his concept of self-actualization: what a person can be, she or he must be (See Motivation and Personality [Harper, 1954]). Maslow characterized the self-actualized, among other characteristics, as displaying higher levels of:
• Efficient perceptions of reality
• Comfort with reality
• Accepting oneself, others, and nature
• Spontaneity
• Simplicity
• Naturalness
• Focus on problems outside themselves
• Detachment
• Preference for privacy
• Autonomy and independence from culture and environment
• Freshness of appreciation and richness of feeling
• Transcendent experience
• Identification with mankind
• Deep interpersonal relations
• Preference for democratic processes
• Ability to differentiate between means and ends
• Nonhostile humor
• Creativity, originality, or inventiveness.
Maslow also spotted significant drawbacks among some of the self-actualized who could be vain, annoying, cold, uncritical, and overgenerous. Obviously, you should seek team members who present the fewest of these drawbacks … even at the risk of losing some creativity.
Don’t be restricted to Maslow’s concept. People who can adapt rapidly to unexpected problems are even more valuable because they point the group in a new direction when everyone else is stuck. You can spot these people by asking them how they solved seemingly impossible problems in the past.
Is There a Leader in the House?
Naturally, choosing the right team leader makes a big difference in your results. Look for a leader who shares the enthusiasm of each team member and knows how to harness that enthusiasm. In addition, you want someone who places the interests of the team and the organization ahead of any desire to exercise power as top dog.
Avoid borrowing a leader from another organization (whether they be consultants or outsourced service providers). Such outsiders will have a harder time reflecting the values of those they lead. If you cannot find an appropriate leader in your organization, be sure to hire someone who will help create the excitement necessary to bring off major changes and who matches your company’s values as closely as possible.
Four leadership qualities are essential to success:
1. Shared values with the organization
2. Understanding the problems thoroughly before beginning the mission
3. Ability to persuade others that the project will succeed
4. Skills relevant to the task.
If your top candidate is in good shape except for skills, consider how you could use some training to fill in those gaps. It’s easier to fill in for ignorance than for a lack of values.
Copyright 2007 Donald W. Mitchell, All Rights Reserved
Donald Mitchell is chairman of Mitchell and Company, a strategy and financial consulting firm in Weston, MA. He is coauthor of six books including The 2,000 Percent Squared Solution, The 2,000 Percent Solution, and The Ultimate Competitive Advantage. You can find free tips for accomplishing 20 times more by registering at: ====> http://www.2000percentsolution.com .
Article republished from Copy & Paste Articles
21 October 2007
Large organisations have full time professional accounting staff to prepare the payroll or the payroll function may be outsourced to a payroll bureau. The payroll task in a small business falls to the proprietor demanding time and effort to become familia with payroll legislation and a not insignificant amount of administration time that could be better spent making profits than number crunching. Small business organisations with up to ten employees producing the weekly payroll can easily take an hour or more each week to calculate the income tax and national insurance contributions .
An hour better spent earning profits or at the very least having an extra hour of free time each week. Free time that small business owner's value at a premium with small business owners often working and thinking about work from dawn to dusk 7 days a week. A payroll software package to satisfy the PAYE requirements can be just one part of making that small business more efficient.Small businesses that fail to operate a sound payroll system can produce a negative effect on the employees. Employees expect to be paid and provided the amount is a competitive rate would only rarely have an effect on staff relations.
However operating a payroll system that does not provide each employee with a payslip is like telling your employee he has received a personal letter that was opened for him and discarded as not important. To the employee a payslip is very important. And so important in that every employer has a legal responsibility to provide each employee with a payslip and at the end of each year a P60 End of Year Employees Certificate. A payroll software solution satisfies employee's essential needs and fulfills the legal requirements. Failure to provide employees with payslips can only reduce the respect hat employee has for his employer.
Every employee must receive a payslip that shows the amount of income tax and national insurance deducted from the gross pay. Employers must also calculate the employer's national insurance contribution. Employers not using a payroll software package such as available from DIY Accounting Payroll Software must design their own payslip to give to employees to satisfy legal requirements.Running a PAYE system and operating a payroll in the UK can be a burdensome task to comply with all the relevant legislation. HMCE provide much expertise advice in this area both via their website and each year through the distribution of the Employers CD-Rom. To fully appreciate all the technicalities and complete all the correct documents such as the P11 Deductions Working sheet is time consuming.
It doesn't have to be a problem. Payroll Software can automate this knowledge and functions and is available at insignificant cost. DIY Accounting Payroll Software package is available for up to 20 employees at a cost of £15 to £25. That is a payroll software package that could save a small business over an hour a week, for twenty employees more like two hours, for less than 50p per week. All small business owners should at least consider suitable efficient payroll software.Many payroll software packages are written using databases and can put many small business owners off using them due to both the cost and the fear of the unknown complexity of using such a payroll package. Many payroll software packages written on a database provide an excellent solution but have a tendency to be extremely politically correct and cover all potential rules and regulations and consequently become more complex to operate as they can demand at least a minimum knowledge of the payroll system.
There are other PAYE solutions. Written on excel sheets the DIY Accounting Payroll Software irequires no payroll software experience with minimum of entries to produce all the essential PAYE calculations of income tax and national insurance. In addition excel copies of the time consuming P11 Deductions working sheet, P60 Employees Certificate and the P35 Annual Employers Return are all automated to save the small business valuable administration time. A payroll software solution written on excel can also be used with an open office spreadsheet package but not least all the entries are visible and therefore transparent. Errors and mistakes can be easily corrected simply by changing the numbers on the payroll ensuring the payroll is produced both quickly and accurately.
Payroll Software is an effective tool that should receive serious consideration by all small business proprietors.Payroll Software also has the advantage because it can be simple and fast to use of avoiding late payments to the revenue and the consequent unwanted letters and potential fines this can invoke. By having all the information required for the monthly or quarterly revenue payments late penalties can be avoided and by producing the Annual Employers return on time small business owners can submit their returns online and receive a tax free online filing bonus. The current online foiling bonus being £150 and substantially more than the payroll software might have cost. And it's Tax Free. As they say in Yorkshire. "If thar you ever gets owt for nowt, Tec it"
Article Source: http://www.myarticlemall.com
Terry Cartwright is a qualified accountant in the UK designing accounting and payroll software packages for small to medium sized business through his website DIY Accounting, Payroll specifically produced for up to 20 employees providing simple Payroll Software written on excel spreadsheets.
Please Rate this Article
An hour better spent earning profits or at the very least having an extra hour of free time each week. Free time that small business owner's value at a premium with small business owners often working and thinking about work from dawn to dusk 7 days a week. A payroll software package to satisfy the PAYE requirements can be just one part of making that small business more efficient.Small businesses that fail to operate a sound payroll system can produce a negative effect on the employees. Employees expect to be paid and provided the amount is a competitive rate would only rarely have an effect on staff relations.
However operating a payroll system that does not provide each employee with a payslip is like telling your employee he has received a personal letter that was opened for him and discarded as not important. To the employee a payslip is very important. And so important in that every employer has a legal responsibility to provide each employee with a payslip and at the end of each year a P60 End of Year Employees Certificate. A payroll software solution satisfies employee's essential needs and fulfills the legal requirements. Failure to provide employees with payslips can only reduce the respect hat employee has for his employer.
Every employee must receive a payslip that shows the amount of income tax and national insurance deducted from the gross pay. Employers must also calculate the employer's national insurance contribution. Employers not using a payroll software package such as available from DIY Accounting Payroll Software must design their own payslip to give to employees to satisfy legal requirements.Running a PAYE system and operating a payroll in the UK can be a burdensome task to comply with all the relevant legislation. HMCE provide much expertise advice in this area both via their website and each year through the distribution of the Employers CD-Rom. To fully appreciate all the technicalities and complete all the correct documents such as the P11 Deductions Working sheet is time consuming.
It doesn't have to be a problem. Payroll Software can automate this knowledge and functions and is available at insignificant cost. DIY Accounting Payroll Software package is available for up to 20 employees at a cost of £15 to £25. That is a payroll software package that could save a small business over an hour a week, for twenty employees more like two hours, for less than 50p per week. All small business owners should at least consider suitable efficient payroll software.Many payroll software packages are written using databases and can put many small business owners off using them due to both the cost and the fear of the unknown complexity of using such a payroll package. Many payroll software packages written on a database provide an excellent solution but have a tendency to be extremely politically correct and cover all potential rules and regulations and consequently become more complex to operate as they can demand at least a minimum knowledge of the payroll system.
There are other PAYE solutions. Written on excel sheets the DIY Accounting Payroll Software irequires no payroll software experience with minimum of entries to produce all the essential PAYE calculations of income tax and national insurance. In addition excel copies of the time consuming P11 Deductions working sheet, P60 Employees Certificate and the P35 Annual Employers Return are all automated to save the small business valuable administration time. A payroll software solution written on excel can also be used with an open office spreadsheet package but not least all the entries are visible and therefore transparent. Errors and mistakes can be easily corrected simply by changing the numbers on the payroll ensuring the payroll is produced both quickly and accurately.
Payroll Software is an effective tool that should receive serious consideration by all small business proprietors.Payroll Software also has the advantage because it can be simple and fast to use of avoiding late payments to the revenue and the consequent unwanted letters and potential fines this can invoke. By having all the information required for the monthly or quarterly revenue payments late penalties can be avoided and by producing the Annual Employers return on time small business owners can submit their returns online and receive a tax free online filing bonus. The current online foiling bonus being £150 and substantially more than the payroll software might have cost. And it's Tax Free. As they say in Yorkshire. "If thar you ever gets owt for nowt, Tec it"
Article Source: http://www.myarticlemall.com
Terry Cartwright is a qualified accountant in the UK designing accounting and payroll software packages for small to medium sized business through his website DIY Accounting, Payroll specifically produced for up to 20 employees providing simple Payroll Software written on excel spreadsheets.
Please Rate this Article
09 September 2006
Role of First- Line Supervisors-Promotion of Harmoniouns Labour – Managemnt Relations
Role of First- Line Supervisors-Promotion of Harmoniouns Labour – Managemnt Relations
By
Dr.A Sreekumar Menon,
Psychologist and Specialist in Management Sciences
Satisfactory Industrial Relations at the Plant Level is essentially a process of developing harmonious relations between management and workers vis-à-vis trade unions and real concern about each other. Satisfactory bi-partite relations create a climate in which management and trade unions bargain effectively and reach agreements on terms and conditions, based on consensus and management implements collective agreements promptly. Both parties adhere to certain voluntary codes of conduct, so that they are able to resolve conflicts peacefully through negotiations and contribute to productivity and overall efficiency of the company. Under healthy Labour-Management Relations, neither the management nor the labour resorts to coercive methods in order to make the other party comply with their demands. For instance, workers do not get involved in such unproductive practices, as ‘go slow’, tardiness, strikes, gheraos, etc., They, on the other hand, put in their best efforts into work, develop a sense of positive discipline, reveal overall satisfaction with their job and commitment to company goals – all of which are mutually related. Similarly, the management reveals authentic and supportive relations with the majority unions and implements collective agreements, in all fairness, shows employee orientation, avoids pressurizing and victimizing union representatives for their union affiliation and resorting to dismissals of employees and lock-outs.
The quality of Labour- management Relations at the plant level is usually judged in terms of such indices as man-days lost due to un-authorized absenteeism, strikes and lock-outs, number of workers involved, and so on. It is also understood in terms of the failure on the part of management and trade union to reach collective agreements, resolve shop-floor grievances, and deal with disciplinary problems in a positive way.
There are certain limitations in using such indices. For instance, these are “post hoc” measures in the sense that they tell what happened already. These criteria are not much helpful in identifying conditions within the organization, which can be controlled in order to improve labour-management relations. These indices, at best, help to understand the gravity of the Industrial Relations situations.
Because of the predominantly labour-oriented polices of our Government, in consonance with the ideals of democratic socialism and the welfare state, we find, that the balance of power between employers and employees and their trade unions, in the area of Industrial Relations is shifting and, in many cases, in favor of employees and their trade unions. The top management experiences increasing constraints in using their traditional authority over the workforce in ensuring satisfactory employee performance and discipline, because of increased worker protection through labour legislation. The disciplinary procedures, for instance, are so complicated and legally involving that it is easy for an employer to get rid of his wife than perhaps to get rid of his unsatisfactory employee. Again the management cannot expect an outcome in their favour when a dispute is referred to an outside party, for conciliation and arbitration. Due to number of factors obtaining in the Industrial relations scene, such as populist and political pressure on Government to pass labor-oriented legislation and the popular stance of our democratic Government to meet minimum needs and raise the standard of living of the masses, we find amendments to every labour legislation bringing more and more concessions to labour. The latest example is the amendments to the E.S.I act of 1984, which has extended its coverage considerably. This trend in our Industrial Relations system is not only going to stay, but also going to be increasingly pronounced in time to come. What are the implications of these changes in our labour policies and for formulating Personnel and Industrial Relations Policies of the management? Some of the following implications are clearly discernible.
1.The top management cannot solely rely, as it used to, on conventional legalistic and administrative approaches, such as collective bargaining, disciplinary procedures, running of bipartite consultative committees, administration of labour-welfare, etc., to sustain and promote harmony in labour–management Relations. Again, the conventional way of handling these Labour Relations practices betrays the spirit with which they were formulated. These are practiced in such ritualistic and routine fashion that they are robbed of their real meaning and value.
2.They can no longer take a narrow view of Labour-Management Relations, judging its satisfactoriness from such criteria as successful negotiations, exchanging concessions largely monetary, across the bargaining table, nor by considering such indices as the number of ma-days lost due to ‘go-slow’, strikes, lock out, negligence, accidents, damage to machinery and equipments, absenteeism and so on, from the point of ‘action plans’. Going by these, diagnosis and prevention of labour problems are analogous to conducting a post-mortem examination of a patient to diagnose his disease and prescribing therapy. On the other hand, they should consider the overall job satisfaction of shop-floor employees and their positive attitudes and sentiments, which emerge from the former as true reflections of the quality of labour-management Relations.
Jobs provide several sources of satisfaction. Conflicts between management and workers do not always occur on financial issues, although the apparent cause always is some sort of financial consideration. Underlying frustrations, due to reasons other than money, are easily articulated in the form of money demands, as being more tangible than others, can be articulated easily. Money demands, many a time are compensations for lack of other sources of satisfaction on the job, negotiated by the employees at the sub-conscious level.
When the employees are generally contented in their jobs not only financial terms, but in non-monetary terms, they develop loyalty towards the organization for which they work, and they support only responsible union leadership and throw their weight against irresponsible outside influences from persons and political parties with vested interests. They do not allow the mature union- management Relations to be exploited by outside agencies. Outside leadership in unions is invariably a constant menace facing the managements and under the socio-political conditions existing in our country today, we cannot hope to root out such external interferences through legislation. To keep the external influences at bay, the management should maintain a generally well-contented workforce and develop “rapport” with them. If the managements cannot develop rapport with their workers, who are with them for the most part of their working life, the outside leaders are there to fill in the vacuum and gain control over the workers.
Supervisory Role in Harmonious Labour-Management Relations Vis-à-vis Maintaining Generally Contented Workforce.
When we consider the harmony in Labour Relations, essentially as maintaining a generally contented labour-force, the role of supervisors becomes clear to us.
The attitudes and behaviours of the First-level Supervisors contribute substantially to employee satisfaction of several jobs related needs and there positive sentiments towards them and towards their organizations. Improper attitudes and behaviour on the part of First Line Supervisors generate employee frustration, negative sentiments, low morale and motivation, employee grievances, resentment, rigid, and rebellious attitudes, dodging their duties and skapegoating, resistance to change, work apathy, inter-personnel, group and inter-group rivalries, (as opposed to inter-personnel trust, support, mutual respect, spirit of accommodation, desire to work as a member of a team and co-operate in work towards a common goal,) developing clichés,etc.
Generally, both top and middle managements do not realize fully how the First Line Supervisor can make or mar harmonious Labour Relations. Maintenance of labour Relations is often considered as a function to be carried out by the top management in consultation with Personnel, Industrial Relations and Labour Departments of the Unit. In other words, it is considered as a “staff function” and line managements such as Departmental Heads and the First Line Supervisors are generally kept out of the picture.
The First Line Supervisors represent the first line management. They occupy strategic position in the organizational hierarchy. They often referred to us “middle-men”. They are members of two subsystems, Viz., the managerial structure and the immediate task force. They are the one who are in day-to-day contact with the work force, rather than the middle or the top managements.
First Line Supervisors, such as, Foremen and Shift Officers, perform broadly two types of duties:(1) technical tasks and (2) personnel. Their technical role may include giving job instructions, solving work related problems, providing facilities and resources, maintaining production targets through supervision of individual and group work, appraising individual performances for maintaining work standers, and so on. Personnel duties may involve employee appraisal for administration of rewards (such as merit increments, promotions) as a regular feed back to the top management and career development, training employees, enforcing work discipline, handling employee grievances, administering labour welfare programmes etc.
In discharging these duties, the supervisors should maintain a fine balance between the organizational needs of productivity and employee discipline and employee needs-physiological, social and psychological and maintain their effective and positive control over shop-floor workers by (1) exercising their operational and technical skills, and (2) by using Human Relations or behavioral skills, including proper use of their organizational authority.
The First Line Supervisors should enjoy the confidence of the workforce, whom they are supervising. They enjoy their confidence, if they are technically competent and if they themselves show signs of motivated performance such as drive and enthusiasm, perseverance to work through difficult problem and situations, and if they are impartial in handling the labour-force, for whenever workers come up against difficulties they cannot solve, they must be able to fall back upon their supervisors. They will never retain their confidence, if their subordinates feel that they know more than them. Theoretical knowledge and practical experience should stand them in good stead. Their perspectives regarding the operational situations should be much broader than those of the workers. They should be able to think about more viable alternatives (options) in doing a job and should have good judgment of the feasibility and safety aspects of mechanical situations. They should themselves be efficient, and be prompt in discharging their supervisory duties. If they are diligent, hard working and well disciplined, they can expect their subordinates to follow suit. There is a proverb: “As the king, so the people”. Supervisory jobs always generate high role pressures. They have to reconcile opposing forces, and strike a balance between incompatible demands.
They have to attend to several problems simultaneouslyontheshop-floor- such as machine breakdowns, speeding up production in a particular production line to meet urgent delivery schedule giving alternate assignment to idle hands due to machine breakdowns, running about for timely delivery of spare parts, supply of raw materials, drawing out the best efforts of employees, etc. And handle all these problems with dexterity. Employees watch with what amount of dexterity they resolve these issues. They should be able to tolerate ambiguity of the situation in the system. They should emphasis on achieving production targets by providing proper facilities and needed help rather then leaving the production decisions entirely on employees and thus following a laissez-faire approach. For want of clarity on work- related matters, the shop-floor workers may suffer from anxiety and insecurity.
There is sufficient evidence from many studies that predominant use of formal authority of the punitive type by supervisors (such as ordering, criticizing, etc) leads to loss of their status in the eyes of their subordinates. The workers resent overtly such an approach. Use of such negative power by supervisors does not help full improvement in the quality and quantity of output; on the other hand, it develops negative attitudes on the part of employees. In contrast to the close punitive type of supervision, often called “breathing down the neck of the workers”, there are situations in which close supervision, followed by guidance and concern for employee welfare, yields good results. Favourable sentiments on the part of workers are likely to be generated by supervisors, the subordinates are benefited in a situation in which the subordinates seek assistance and in such situations, the bonds of relationship between supervisors and shop-floor employees get established.
First Line supervisors who display Human Relations skill in supervising people express the following kinds of behavior:
1. Being permissive rather than being coercive, using their knowledge more often than their formal authority, providing facts and information, being open in giving and receiving feed back and accepting self-responsibility for failure rather than passing the buck.
2. Being friendly and easily approachable, showing a sense of respect towards and confidence in subordinates as opposed to being farmland impersonal (keeping social distance) and encouraging group efforts rather than supervising them individually.
3. Being fair and objective in dealing with subordinates, not playing favorites in the hands of a few workers, not practicing “divide and rule” and not going by caste, community and other considerations in taking personal decisions. Treating all workers as equal, having faith in their skills and capacities, considering every worker as having potentiality and as capable of contributing her work, Objective in assessing the performance of workers, and keeping training and development as one of the objectives of employees appraisal. If a supervisor is empathetic, workers are likely to bring problems to him. This gives him opportunity to influence their behavior.
4. Giving due appreciation to the work of the subordinates through favourable assessment for promoting them and through oral appreciation of the work when the workers put in extra work and show extra enthusiasm. Some supervisors may think that, after all, workers are expected to give their best returns for the money they are paid and why should they get extra reward through verbal praise?
5. Granting enough freedom to them with accountability, involving them and allowing their participation in planning work and other decision matters, depending upon their capacity to share responsibilities. Providing additional responsibility is an act of recognizing their abilities and transposing confidence in them, which acts as an incentive.
6. Representing the workers whom they supervise, speaking and acting as representative of the group before top management. Maintaining cordial relations and having influence with supervisors (middle and top management). Just as the management would consider the supervisors to be their representatives, so also the workers. They voice their needs, grievances and aspirations regarding earnings, working conditions, and welfare facilities before their supervisors who can play a role in meeting their expectations by the top management. It is quite likely that that the scope and extent of authority, which a supervisor wields and can exercise, is delimited by work rules, management policies and authority structure existing in an organization, for example, some of the employee demands like those for higher wages, bonus, etc., may have a bearing on wider company policy and the supervisors may hardly have any say in the matter. However, it is conceivable that the outlook of the supervisors towards such employee grievances and the approach they adopt in dealing with such grievances and the approach they adopt in dealing with such grievances may reflect how well they have played their roles. Even if they cannot solve their problems, they contribute to healthy Human Relations, if they show interest in employee problems, interest in patient listening and sincerity in solving them. By listening to their complaints and advising (counseling) them, they will also be providing the workers the opportunity “ to let off their steam”.
Top and Middle Management Practices regarding the Role of First- Line Supervisors.
First Line supervisors do not function in an organizational vacuum. They have role and Authority Relations with the riles of middle and top managements. Thus, their contribution to harmonious Labour Relations depends not only on their operational and Human Relations skills, dealt above as also upon the following parameters.
1. Authority delegated to them in operational and personnel matters, such as grievance redressal, and employee discipline.
2. The degree of equalitarian relations, shown by the middle and the top management towards the supervisors and the promptness with which they act on their feedback.
3. The extent of participation they allow to supervisors in departmental decision-making.
4. The extent to which they support legitimate supervisory authority over workers and
5. The extent to which the supervisors are involved in Industrial Relations matters by higher levels.
Some of the studies done by the author in Indian enterprises reveal that the higher levels do not involve First-Level Supervisors in decision making in general and in Industrial Relations matters in particular. The top management and the Personnel Department deal with the shop-floor employees and or their union leaders directly in matters, such as grievance redressal and disciplinary procedure, without taking the supervisors into confidence. They keep a social distance with them. They maintain formal relationship and the communication is minimum. Similarly, no weight age is given to their assessment of employees in promotion and other rewards by the administration. The higher levels of management may condone the serious disciplinary problems in the shop floor, thinking that it may develop into serious and volatile Union-Management conformations. The supervisors who initiate disciplinary actions against the erring workers may not receive support from higher levels or may be rebutted. Sometimes, the decisions taken by the supervisors in matters of employee discipline may be reversed at the instance of union pressure on top management, causing considerable embarrassment to supervisors.
Thus, their legitimate authority over the shop-floor employees is eroded because of the above practices at higher levels of management. With very little authority and carrying a load of personal frustration, we can hardly expect them to contribute much to the harmony of Labour Management Relations.
Many scholars have studied the conditions in the organizational situation, which hinder supervisory efficiency. For instance.
Rangnekar says that in many cases, the top management continues to put pressure on the first line management to get results. However, people in these levels are often unable to pass the pressure, as it is confronted with organized employees at the lowest level. In the case of serious conflict between management and workers, lower levels of management get squeezed, between the two sides. The new manager at junior and middle management levels has often received some degree of management education. This has led him to expect participation in the management decision-making process. However, in actual life, he finds himself more as the implementer of decision arrived at without the benefit of his thinking a-real messenger of the so-called “decision-makers”
Indian studies on the Motivation of Managers and Supervisors have brought out the following findings.
There is absence of a number of incentives in their jobs. They feel that jobs are monotonous and that they are unable to test their skills and make use of experience. They perceive that their jobs do not allow them sufficient freedom to take decisions, nor do they provide them with opportunity for sharing adequate responsibility and for learning developing new skills. They feel a sense of being left out of the mainstream of organizational events due to inadequate communication and supportive feedback regarding there and other’s jobs. These imply that the organizational structure, design of jobs and authority-control patters at the middle and First Line Managerial levels are not conducive for supervisory effectiveness. The supervisory discontentment with their jobs instigates them to behave in irrational ways. Their work behaviour may be characterized by apathy, lack of result-orientation, shying away from responsibility and passing the buck, sense of alienation, rigidity, resistance to change, a tendency to organize along trade union lines for collective action and identifying more the workers whom they supervise and their unions, with the idea that their bargaining position with the management will be strengthened. Thus, though the top management may exhort that First-Line Supervisors are a part of the top management, their policies and actions in regard to supervisory jobs may be such that the above kinds of feelings are not developed in them.
In addition to the above kinds of frustrating experiences on the part of supervisors which give rise to frustration-instigated behaviour, they may also copy the bad examples of authoritarian and autocratic leadership styles of their bosses and may exercise this kind of leadership on the rank and file, which meets with resentment. Thus, if the first Line Supervisors were to provide a productive and humanitarian social climate to the rank and file, they should in turn receive the same treatment from their superiors. The old adage “ Love begets love and hanred begets hatred” is truer in organizational actions than in anything else. An organization is composed of inter-dependent parts and we cannot cleanse one part of the organization, if the other inter-related parts are far from being hygienic.
Thus, in short, it is necessary to maintain a supervisory team, which is high on motivation and morale, in addition to ensuring there operational and Human Relations skills, through supervisory training and development. This also paves the way to positive contributions to Labour- Management Relations from supervisors.
References:
1. Sharu S Rangnekr Middle management in search of identity paper published in the proceedings of the conference come seminar of Officers organistions, Bombay, June 3, 1973, p.10-15
2. For elaboration for the above findings see Dayal Ishwar and Sharma B A Strike of supervisory staff in State Bank of India, Bombay, Progressive Corporation, 1971.
3. A.SreekumarMenon Managerial Unionisum in Indian Business an Industry and its Management, Lok Udyog, March 1975
4. Lakshmi Narain Manangerial Compensation in Public Enterprises, New Delhi, Oxford,I.B.H 1973
5. J B P Sinah Some Problems Of Public Sector Organisations. Delhi, National, 1973.
***************************************
By
Dr.A Sreekumar Menon,
Psychologist and Specialist in Management Sciences
Satisfactory Industrial Relations at the Plant Level is essentially a process of developing harmonious relations between management and workers vis-à-vis trade unions and real concern about each other. Satisfactory bi-partite relations create a climate in which management and trade unions bargain effectively and reach agreements on terms and conditions, based on consensus and management implements collective agreements promptly. Both parties adhere to certain voluntary codes of conduct, so that they are able to resolve conflicts peacefully through negotiations and contribute to productivity and overall efficiency of the company. Under healthy Labour-Management Relations, neither the management nor the labour resorts to coercive methods in order to make the other party comply with their demands. For instance, workers do not get involved in such unproductive practices, as ‘go slow’, tardiness, strikes, gheraos, etc., They, on the other hand, put in their best efforts into work, develop a sense of positive discipline, reveal overall satisfaction with their job and commitment to company goals – all of which are mutually related. Similarly, the management reveals authentic and supportive relations with the majority unions and implements collective agreements, in all fairness, shows employee orientation, avoids pressurizing and victimizing union representatives for their union affiliation and resorting to dismissals of employees and lock-outs.
The quality of Labour- management Relations at the plant level is usually judged in terms of such indices as man-days lost due to un-authorized absenteeism, strikes and lock-outs, number of workers involved, and so on. It is also understood in terms of the failure on the part of management and trade union to reach collective agreements, resolve shop-floor grievances, and deal with disciplinary problems in a positive way.
There are certain limitations in using such indices. For instance, these are “post hoc” measures in the sense that they tell what happened already. These criteria are not much helpful in identifying conditions within the organization, which can be controlled in order to improve labour-management relations. These indices, at best, help to understand the gravity of the Industrial Relations situations.
Because of the predominantly labour-oriented polices of our Government, in consonance with the ideals of democratic socialism and the welfare state, we find, that the balance of power between employers and employees and their trade unions, in the area of Industrial Relations is shifting and, in many cases, in favor of employees and their trade unions. The top management experiences increasing constraints in using their traditional authority over the workforce in ensuring satisfactory employee performance and discipline, because of increased worker protection through labour legislation. The disciplinary procedures, for instance, are so complicated and legally involving that it is easy for an employer to get rid of his wife than perhaps to get rid of his unsatisfactory employee. Again the management cannot expect an outcome in their favour when a dispute is referred to an outside party, for conciliation and arbitration. Due to number of factors obtaining in the Industrial relations scene, such as populist and political pressure on Government to pass labor-oriented legislation and the popular stance of our democratic Government to meet minimum needs and raise the standard of living of the masses, we find amendments to every labour legislation bringing more and more concessions to labour. The latest example is the amendments to the E.S.I act of 1984, which has extended its coverage considerably. This trend in our Industrial Relations system is not only going to stay, but also going to be increasingly pronounced in time to come. What are the implications of these changes in our labour policies and for formulating Personnel and Industrial Relations Policies of the management? Some of the following implications are clearly discernible.
1.The top management cannot solely rely, as it used to, on conventional legalistic and administrative approaches, such as collective bargaining, disciplinary procedures, running of bipartite consultative committees, administration of labour-welfare, etc., to sustain and promote harmony in labour–management Relations. Again, the conventional way of handling these Labour Relations practices betrays the spirit with which they were formulated. These are practiced in such ritualistic and routine fashion that they are robbed of their real meaning and value.
2.They can no longer take a narrow view of Labour-Management Relations, judging its satisfactoriness from such criteria as successful negotiations, exchanging concessions largely monetary, across the bargaining table, nor by considering such indices as the number of ma-days lost due to ‘go-slow’, strikes, lock out, negligence, accidents, damage to machinery and equipments, absenteeism and so on, from the point of ‘action plans’. Going by these, diagnosis and prevention of labour problems are analogous to conducting a post-mortem examination of a patient to diagnose his disease and prescribing therapy. On the other hand, they should consider the overall job satisfaction of shop-floor employees and their positive attitudes and sentiments, which emerge from the former as true reflections of the quality of labour-management Relations.
Jobs provide several sources of satisfaction. Conflicts between management and workers do not always occur on financial issues, although the apparent cause always is some sort of financial consideration. Underlying frustrations, due to reasons other than money, are easily articulated in the form of money demands, as being more tangible than others, can be articulated easily. Money demands, many a time are compensations for lack of other sources of satisfaction on the job, negotiated by the employees at the sub-conscious level.
When the employees are generally contented in their jobs not only financial terms, but in non-monetary terms, they develop loyalty towards the organization for which they work, and they support only responsible union leadership and throw their weight against irresponsible outside influences from persons and political parties with vested interests. They do not allow the mature union- management Relations to be exploited by outside agencies. Outside leadership in unions is invariably a constant menace facing the managements and under the socio-political conditions existing in our country today, we cannot hope to root out such external interferences through legislation. To keep the external influences at bay, the management should maintain a generally well-contented workforce and develop “rapport” with them. If the managements cannot develop rapport with their workers, who are with them for the most part of their working life, the outside leaders are there to fill in the vacuum and gain control over the workers.
Supervisory Role in Harmonious Labour-Management Relations Vis-à-vis Maintaining Generally Contented Workforce.
When we consider the harmony in Labour Relations, essentially as maintaining a generally contented labour-force, the role of supervisors becomes clear to us.
The attitudes and behaviours of the First-level Supervisors contribute substantially to employee satisfaction of several jobs related needs and there positive sentiments towards them and towards their organizations. Improper attitudes and behaviour on the part of First Line Supervisors generate employee frustration, negative sentiments, low morale and motivation, employee grievances, resentment, rigid, and rebellious attitudes, dodging their duties and skapegoating, resistance to change, work apathy, inter-personnel, group and inter-group rivalries, (as opposed to inter-personnel trust, support, mutual respect, spirit of accommodation, desire to work as a member of a team and co-operate in work towards a common goal,) developing clichés,etc.
Generally, both top and middle managements do not realize fully how the First Line Supervisor can make or mar harmonious Labour Relations. Maintenance of labour Relations is often considered as a function to be carried out by the top management in consultation with Personnel, Industrial Relations and Labour Departments of the Unit. In other words, it is considered as a “staff function” and line managements such as Departmental Heads and the First Line Supervisors are generally kept out of the picture.
The First Line Supervisors represent the first line management. They occupy strategic position in the organizational hierarchy. They often referred to us “middle-men”. They are members of two subsystems, Viz., the managerial structure and the immediate task force. They are the one who are in day-to-day contact with the work force, rather than the middle or the top managements.
First Line Supervisors, such as, Foremen and Shift Officers, perform broadly two types of duties:(1) technical tasks and (2) personnel. Their technical role may include giving job instructions, solving work related problems, providing facilities and resources, maintaining production targets through supervision of individual and group work, appraising individual performances for maintaining work standers, and so on. Personnel duties may involve employee appraisal for administration of rewards (such as merit increments, promotions) as a regular feed back to the top management and career development, training employees, enforcing work discipline, handling employee grievances, administering labour welfare programmes etc.
In discharging these duties, the supervisors should maintain a fine balance between the organizational needs of productivity and employee discipline and employee needs-physiological, social and psychological and maintain their effective and positive control over shop-floor workers by (1) exercising their operational and technical skills, and (2) by using Human Relations or behavioral skills, including proper use of their organizational authority.
The First Line Supervisors should enjoy the confidence of the workforce, whom they are supervising. They enjoy their confidence, if they are technically competent and if they themselves show signs of motivated performance such as drive and enthusiasm, perseverance to work through difficult problem and situations, and if they are impartial in handling the labour-force, for whenever workers come up against difficulties they cannot solve, they must be able to fall back upon their supervisors. They will never retain their confidence, if their subordinates feel that they know more than them. Theoretical knowledge and practical experience should stand them in good stead. Their perspectives regarding the operational situations should be much broader than those of the workers. They should be able to think about more viable alternatives (options) in doing a job and should have good judgment of the feasibility and safety aspects of mechanical situations. They should themselves be efficient, and be prompt in discharging their supervisory duties. If they are diligent, hard working and well disciplined, they can expect their subordinates to follow suit. There is a proverb: “As the king, so the people”. Supervisory jobs always generate high role pressures. They have to reconcile opposing forces, and strike a balance between incompatible demands.
They have to attend to several problems simultaneouslyontheshop-floor- such as machine breakdowns, speeding up production in a particular production line to meet urgent delivery schedule giving alternate assignment to idle hands due to machine breakdowns, running about for timely delivery of spare parts, supply of raw materials, drawing out the best efforts of employees, etc. And handle all these problems with dexterity. Employees watch with what amount of dexterity they resolve these issues. They should be able to tolerate ambiguity of the situation in the system. They should emphasis on achieving production targets by providing proper facilities and needed help rather then leaving the production decisions entirely on employees and thus following a laissez-faire approach. For want of clarity on work- related matters, the shop-floor workers may suffer from anxiety and insecurity.
There is sufficient evidence from many studies that predominant use of formal authority of the punitive type by supervisors (such as ordering, criticizing, etc) leads to loss of their status in the eyes of their subordinates. The workers resent overtly such an approach. Use of such negative power by supervisors does not help full improvement in the quality and quantity of output; on the other hand, it develops negative attitudes on the part of employees. In contrast to the close punitive type of supervision, often called “breathing down the neck of the workers”, there are situations in which close supervision, followed by guidance and concern for employee welfare, yields good results. Favourable sentiments on the part of workers are likely to be generated by supervisors, the subordinates are benefited in a situation in which the subordinates seek assistance and in such situations, the bonds of relationship between supervisors and shop-floor employees get established.
First Line supervisors who display Human Relations skill in supervising people express the following kinds of behavior:
1. Being permissive rather than being coercive, using their knowledge more often than their formal authority, providing facts and information, being open in giving and receiving feed back and accepting self-responsibility for failure rather than passing the buck.
2. Being friendly and easily approachable, showing a sense of respect towards and confidence in subordinates as opposed to being farmland impersonal (keeping social distance) and encouraging group efforts rather than supervising them individually.
3. Being fair and objective in dealing with subordinates, not playing favorites in the hands of a few workers, not practicing “divide and rule” and not going by caste, community and other considerations in taking personal decisions. Treating all workers as equal, having faith in their skills and capacities, considering every worker as having potentiality and as capable of contributing her work, Objective in assessing the performance of workers, and keeping training and development as one of the objectives of employees appraisal. If a supervisor is empathetic, workers are likely to bring problems to him. This gives him opportunity to influence their behavior.
4. Giving due appreciation to the work of the subordinates through favourable assessment for promoting them and through oral appreciation of the work when the workers put in extra work and show extra enthusiasm. Some supervisors may think that, after all, workers are expected to give their best returns for the money they are paid and why should they get extra reward through verbal praise?
5. Granting enough freedom to them with accountability, involving them and allowing their participation in planning work and other decision matters, depending upon their capacity to share responsibilities. Providing additional responsibility is an act of recognizing their abilities and transposing confidence in them, which acts as an incentive.
6. Representing the workers whom they supervise, speaking and acting as representative of the group before top management. Maintaining cordial relations and having influence with supervisors (middle and top management). Just as the management would consider the supervisors to be their representatives, so also the workers. They voice their needs, grievances and aspirations regarding earnings, working conditions, and welfare facilities before their supervisors who can play a role in meeting their expectations by the top management. It is quite likely that that the scope and extent of authority, which a supervisor wields and can exercise, is delimited by work rules, management policies and authority structure existing in an organization, for example, some of the employee demands like those for higher wages, bonus, etc., may have a bearing on wider company policy and the supervisors may hardly have any say in the matter. However, it is conceivable that the outlook of the supervisors towards such employee grievances and the approach they adopt in dealing with such grievances and the approach they adopt in dealing with such grievances may reflect how well they have played their roles. Even if they cannot solve their problems, they contribute to healthy Human Relations, if they show interest in employee problems, interest in patient listening and sincerity in solving them. By listening to their complaints and advising (counseling) them, they will also be providing the workers the opportunity “ to let off their steam”.
Top and Middle Management Practices regarding the Role of First- Line Supervisors.
First Line supervisors do not function in an organizational vacuum. They have role and Authority Relations with the riles of middle and top managements. Thus, their contribution to harmonious Labour Relations depends not only on their operational and Human Relations skills, dealt above as also upon the following parameters.
1. Authority delegated to them in operational and personnel matters, such as grievance redressal, and employee discipline.
2. The degree of equalitarian relations, shown by the middle and the top management towards the supervisors and the promptness with which they act on their feedback.
3. The extent of participation they allow to supervisors in departmental decision-making.
4. The extent to which they support legitimate supervisory authority over workers and
5. The extent to which the supervisors are involved in Industrial Relations matters by higher levels.
Some of the studies done by the author in Indian enterprises reveal that the higher levels do not involve First-Level Supervisors in decision making in general and in Industrial Relations matters in particular. The top management and the Personnel Department deal with the shop-floor employees and or their union leaders directly in matters, such as grievance redressal and disciplinary procedure, without taking the supervisors into confidence. They keep a social distance with them. They maintain formal relationship and the communication is minimum. Similarly, no weight age is given to their assessment of employees in promotion and other rewards by the administration. The higher levels of management may condone the serious disciplinary problems in the shop floor, thinking that it may develop into serious and volatile Union-Management conformations. The supervisors who initiate disciplinary actions against the erring workers may not receive support from higher levels or may be rebutted. Sometimes, the decisions taken by the supervisors in matters of employee discipline may be reversed at the instance of union pressure on top management, causing considerable embarrassment to supervisors.
Thus, their legitimate authority over the shop-floor employees is eroded because of the above practices at higher levels of management. With very little authority and carrying a load of personal frustration, we can hardly expect them to contribute much to the harmony of Labour Management Relations.
Many scholars have studied the conditions in the organizational situation, which hinder supervisory efficiency. For instance.
Rangnekar says that in many cases, the top management continues to put pressure on the first line management to get results. However, people in these levels are often unable to pass the pressure, as it is confronted with organized employees at the lowest level. In the case of serious conflict between management and workers, lower levels of management get squeezed, between the two sides. The new manager at junior and middle management levels has often received some degree of management education. This has led him to expect participation in the management decision-making process. However, in actual life, he finds himself more as the implementer of decision arrived at without the benefit of his thinking a-real messenger of the so-called “decision-makers”
Indian studies on the Motivation of Managers and Supervisors have brought out the following findings.
There is absence of a number of incentives in their jobs. They feel that jobs are monotonous and that they are unable to test their skills and make use of experience. They perceive that their jobs do not allow them sufficient freedom to take decisions, nor do they provide them with opportunity for sharing adequate responsibility and for learning developing new skills. They feel a sense of being left out of the mainstream of organizational events due to inadequate communication and supportive feedback regarding there and other’s jobs. These imply that the organizational structure, design of jobs and authority-control patters at the middle and First Line Managerial levels are not conducive for supervisory effectiveness. The supervisory discontentment with their jobs instigates them to behave in irrational ways. Their work behaviour may be characterized by apathy, lack of result-orientation, shying away from responsibility and passing the buck, sense of alienation, rigidity, resistance to change, a tendency to organize along trade union lines for collective action and identifying more the workers whom they supervise and their unions, with the idea that their bargaining position with the management will be strengthened. Thus, though the top management may exhort that First-Line Supervisors are a part of the top management, their policies and actions in regard to supervisory jobs may be such that the above kinds of feelings are not developed in them.
In addition to the above kinds of frustrating experiences on the part of supervisors which give rise to frustration-instigated behaviour, they may also copy the bad examples of authoritarian and autocratic leadership styles of their bosses and may exercise this kind of leadership on the rank and file, which meets with resentment. Thus, if the first Line Supervisors were to provide a productive and humanitarian social climate to the rank and file, they should in turn receive the same treatment from their superiors. The old adage “ Love begets love and hanred begets hatred” is truer in organizational actions than in anything else. An organization is composed of inter-dependent parts and we cannot cleanse one part of the organization, if the other inter-related parts are far from being hygienic.
Thus, in short, it is necessary to maintain a supervisory team, which is high on motivation and morale, in addition to ensuring there operational and Human Relations skills, through supervisory training and development. This also paves the way to positive contributions to Labour- Management Relations from supervisors.
References:
1. Sharu S Rangnekr Middle management in search of identity paper published in the proceedings of the conference come seminar of Officers organistions, Bombay, June 3, 1973, p.10-15
2. For elaboration for the above findings see Dayal Ishwar and Sharma B A Strike of supervisory staff in State Bank of India, Bombay, Progressive Corporation, 1971.
3. A.SreekumarMenon Managerial Unionisum in Indian Business an Industry and its Management, Lok Udyog, March 1975
4. Lakshmi Narain Manangerial Compensation in Public Enterprises, New Delhi, Oxford,I.B.H 1973
5. J B P Sinah Some Problems Of Public Sector Organisations. Delhi, National, 1973.
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24 June 2006
Organizational Climate and Work Motivation
Beyond doubt, the primary goal of business and industry is to create wealth – to achieve better returns on investment so that larger economic gains can be shared by employers, employees, and consumers. However, creation of wealth is not spontaneous. The goals of human organization are to be met in order to achieve the economic objectives. Organizations normally provide large number of material rewards, such as attractive salary and other benefits and comfortable working conditions. The implicit assumption underlying this approach is that the contented work force is better producing. This assumption has been seriously questioned in a number of studies1. Thus, organizations should evolve more ambitious schemes helpful for the realization of employee potential and morale.
In order to achieve this, an understanding of the conditions in an organization having bearing on employee morale and their motivation (desire) to work is necessary. Keeping this in view, this paper discusses some of the conditions in organizations under the headings: Organizational Climate; Socio-Cultural System of Employee Needs; Work Motivation; Organizational Climate Factors and Opportunities for Need Satisfaction and Need Dissatisfaction; Organizational Typologies and Work Motivation; and Indian Industrial and Business Organizations.
Organizational Climate
Any business and industrial organization is a techno-socio-psychological system. Technology is a broad term used to include means and procedures instrumental in discharging the functions of an organization. The “means and procedures” depend upon the goals of the organization. Let us consider, for instance, a company manufacturing pharmaceuticals. Machines and other automatic and semi-automatic devices are used in preparing pharmaceutical products. Apart from these, other means and procedures necessary for achieving the goals of a pharmaceutical company are also adopted. The pharmaceutical company purchases chemicals and other raw materials, keeps inventory of items, checks the quality, meets the needs of the consumer, develops new processes and techniques, expands and diversifies, etc. These functions are discharged appropriately by adopting the so-called modern management practices. Use of Techniques such as quality control, research and development, work or output measurement, operations research are some of the technological tools used by industry.
The management practices which a company adopts are interdependent in nature. This means that a company which adopts one management practice (called modern) will generally be predisposed favourably towards a number of other practices. For instance, the management which undertakes a systematic analysis of its product market will equally be concerned with controlling the quality of production. Baumgartel2 in a study on penetration of modern management practices in Indian business organizations found that the companies which are innovative adopt a number of modern management practices.
As opposed to technological practices, there are practices related to management of personnel. Personnel practices ail proper administration of labour resources just as technological practices help rationalizing methods and procedures. Some of the personnel practices are proper hiring practices, employee development programmes, use of job evaluation in developing job descriptions, salary administration, and so on.
Just as the technological practices reflect part of the larger organizational culture, the personnel management practices also reflect the larger organizational culture. This part of the organizational culture is referred to as organizational climate.
Organizational Climate Defined.
In production organizations, there is the task (mechanical)-individual interaction. The person deals with machines, materials, or data and behaves in prescribed ways, as per the dictates of the organization. The organization builds up certain expectations, provides certain need fulfillment opportunities, and controls certain actual and potential behaviours. These socio-personal interaction processes constitute organizational climate.
Baumgartel3 defines organizational climate along the following lines. “Organizational climate is a product of leadership practices, communication patterns, enduring and systematic characteristics of the working relationships among persons and divisions of any particular organization.” He considers the following characteristics observable in organizational life as determining the developmental organizational climate. They are :
1. Growth-orientation
2. Providing opportunity to executives to use new knowledge
3. Willingness to train the executives
4. Stimulate and approve of innovations, and experimentation
5. Higher management being considerate of lower management
6. Giving freedom to set own performance goals
7. Involving various hierarchical levels in decision-making
8. Showing confidence in competence and judgement of top management
9. Having free and open communication within management
10. Using performance as major criteria for promotions
11. Existence of interpersonal trust among executives
12. Not having restrictions through rules and procedures
13. Arranging conferences and group discussions
14. Absence of interpersonal conflict and rivalry
15. Planning new products.
Technological Practices and Organizational Climate
Both technological practices and organizational climate reflect in organizational structure, administrative practices, and management control systems. Although one may find certain technological practices co-existing with certain organizational climate factors, such associations are not universal. This fact has come out in a number of Indian studies4. Baumgartel5 correlated items on modern management practices with items on Organizational climate and found them yielding low correlations. This implies that the technological practices and organizational climate are mutually independent or orthogonal in nature.
Technological practices contribute to mechanical aspects of organizational production, whereas favourable organizational climate contributes to work efficiency vis-à-vis employee motivation. This view is attested by Basu6 when he says that “investment and technology are by themselves insufficient for the growth of the economy, it is only when competent management is brought to bear on enterprises that the latter can achieve the objectives for which they were created”.
Organizational climate can be described in terms of some of the following characteristics7 :
1. Risk-Taking versus Complacent
2. Compromising versus Unilateral
3. Unstructuring versus Structuring
4. Warmth and Support versus Lack of Warmth and Support
5. Decentralization versus Centralization
6. Expert Persuasion versus Coercion
7. Problem Solving Approach versus Status Approach to Authority
8. Co-operative versus Competitive Approach
9. Employee-Task Fit versus Lack of Employee-Task Fit
10. Performance-based Reward versus Expediency Reward
11. High Performance Goals versus Low Performance Goals
Some of the organizational actions which the above aspects characterize may be indicated.
Risk-Taking Versus Complacent
In running business and production, the organizations need take risks (acting under conditions of relative uncertainty). Risks might be of varied kinds, such as those taken in the event of technological decisions, which have bearing on employees and those which are related to personnel matters per se. Any issue throws us many courses (many a times mutually conflicting) of actions. No single approach is normally apparent in the solution of a problem. This is much more so in the complex world of business. Apart from the uncertainty of the situation, top managements might differ in the extent to which they encourage the employees to take risk. Some top managements may restrict the chance of their lower-level managers and workers taking risk by designing authoritarian set-up and practices; while others might encourage risk-taking at all levels by setting up decentralized structures.
Compromising Versus Unilateral
Certain top managements are unilateral in their approach. They resist compromise. They are more rigid than flexible. Dayal8 refers to such orientation of managements as “…absence of the ethics of collaboration”. He holds that in such organizations management-union and inter-departmental relationships breed suspicion and distrust. Unilateral organizations permit only low levels of conflict and confrontation. On the contrary, the compromising organizations think that the conflicts in interests and purposeful confrontations between different groups (like management and the workers or trade unions) are inevitable and healthy signs of openness in organizational communication. Critical attitudes are viewed by the management as helpful in receiving useful suggestion and feedback for its improvement.
Unstructuring Versus Structuring
Organizations may differ in the degree of clarity in roles at various hierarchical levels. In some cases, role ambiguity (opposite of role clarity) might be substantial. The role ambiguity is substantial when the job duties are extremely unstructured and unspecified. In a situation of high ambiguity, the job holders lack clear understanding of their duties, responsibilities, and positions in the authority structure. The deleterious effects of role ambiguity and role conflict (the situation in which a subordinate is under conflicting demands from more than one superior) in terms of tension and anxiety and poor efficiency have been brought out by Kahn et al.9 The study by Menon10 brings out certain interesting findings regarding clarity in tasks and in reporting relationships. More is the subordinate expectation that his superior should be specific in assigning work, and less the tendency of the superior to be specific, more is the former’s dissatisfaction with his superior’s leadership and less his feeling that his superior and colleagues support him. In such a situation, he hardly experiences learning and work responsibility. Even employees who want to do their best (achievement-oriented) look for role clarity.
Lack of role clarity encourages arbitrariness in decision making and management practices. In an ambiguous organizational situation, the manager’s action is determined by expediency of the situation and his personal skill and competence and individual personality. There is too much reliance on the individual executive. A study by Roy11 reveals that one of the dysfunctional elements in the working of private sector industry in India is the arbitrariness and nepotism on the part of management. There are hardly any work rules and procedures defining the authority and responsibility of the employees at different levels. Singh12, discussing the management practices in private organizations in India, says that “organizational structures of many of the largest Indian enterprises are haphazard; organizational charts are rate and even where they exist they are a secret. Managerial jobs are seldom defined or described.”
Although the above discussion points out the dysfunctional nature of role ambiguity, it is to be borne in mind that the other extreme, viz., high structure (role clarity), is also dysfunctional. High structuring delimits the freedom on the part of individual employees and even depersonalizes the work (this feature is commonly referred to as rule-orientation in bureaucratic settings). High-structure situation has the following characteristics of organizational behaviour. Interpersonal interaction, horizontal and vertical, is minimum. The work activities are hardly coordinated. Group goals are not visible for the individual employees. The opportunity for self-determination and participation is minimum. A number of investigators13 have found that job satisfaction, mental health, and level of performance are all directly related to opportunities for self-expression, self-control, participation, and individual freedom and responsibility. Menon14 found that the personal work efficiency of supervisors is high when their superiors provide them with personal support and encourage them by involving them in organizational decision-making.
Warmth and Support Versus Lack Of Warmth And Support
Organizations differ in the extent to which they provide personal and work-related support, and warmth and friendliness in interpersonal relationships. The members in the organization at various levels need know what is expected of them in relation to others. Those who are higher in the hierarchy and who have the role of coordinating activities at the lower levels communicate to those who are below them. The subordinates also look for friendly relationships with their superiors. Menon15 has pointed out the following important aspects of warmth and support in interpersonal relationships. He found that supervisors felt responsible and committed when they experienced satisfaction due to opportunities in the job for learning experience and due to opportunities in the job for learning experience and due to its challenging nature in interpersonal atmosphere characterized by support from superiors. The support from the supervisors seems to be instrumental to the development of responsibility and work commitment especially on the part of employees who do not look for detailed work instructions. Apart from the support facilitating goal achievement it also seems to lead to the feeling of prestige in the group particularly on the part of those who desire social relationships.
Decentralization Versus Centralization
In certain organizations, persons at different levels of hierarchy possess authority according to their levels of decision-making and task execution. Such organizations have a decentralized structure. In a decentralized set-up persons at lower levels interact with those in the parallel and interrelated levels as well as with those immediately higher. They have sufficient freedom in their areas of functioning and also in contributing to the overall objectives.16 The increased interaction helps build better coordination. Again, in such a participatory set-up, the persons are clear about their goals and their commitment is strengthened through group pressure. Participation in decision-making calls for better abilities than participation in executive functions. In a decentralized set-up, the superiors have confidence in the competence of their subordinates. There is mutual trust among persons. The organization grants adequate responsibility and commensurate authority.
In contrast, in centralized organizations, the authority rests in the hands of a few top echelons. The subordinates receive specific instructions. The freedom and the conditions for the expression of the individual’s talents are limited. The centralization of authority might take two forms: (i) formation of bureaucratic set-up (emphasis on rules and procedures), and (ii) an unstable and ill-defined organizational structures. The first condition is seen in the management system of Public enterprises in India17 and the second in the management of Private enterprises in India18.
Under Bureaucratic set-up, the individual goes by rules. In such rule-oriented structures, the individual hardly takes any risk. With everyone following the fixed path, co-ordination of functions is hardly achieved. The persons in a Bureaucratic structure work for their individual goals rather than for the overall organizational goals. Lacking awareness of real goals, the employees derive satisfaction of goal achievement by ardently following the rules. In the context of increasing complexity of functions and specialization, persons who lack individual goal orientation and appreciation of common goals work for cross-purposes.
Unstable and ill-defined organizational climate is characterized by the following organizational actions. The subordinates are given specific instructions and are closely supervised. As many control checks as possible and are permitted by technology are instituted. This type of organization follows no line of command. The higher echelons have direct access to all levels and hardly any question of bypassing the authority arises.
Expert Persuasion Versus Coercive Approach
Persuasive approach in an organization is characterized by a number of following kinds of behaviours. Superior guides the subordinate towards larger organizational goals without unduly restricting freedom on the part of the latter. He makes available to him the facilities. He is friendly and accepting. He is consistent and fair in practices. He works towards the well-being of his subordinate. He lends adequate support and help.
In contrast, the superior who adopts a coercive approach exhibits certain other behaviours. His main concern is to see that his subordinate submits to him. He uses punishment to control his subordinate. His predominant set is to point out the mistakes of his subordinate rather than correcting him and making him learn new experience. He is, more often than not, inconsistent in administering punishments. Such a superior is hardly rated as fair by subordinates. Superior develops in the minds of subordinate feelings of failure and thus coerces compliance to his ways, which are right by virtue of his being a superior. Different kinds of punishments such as criticism, disapproval, withholding relevant task-related and personal information, withholding positive feedback, providing false feedback in the form of criticism, etc., are administered.
Problem-Solving Approach Versus Status Approach To Authority
In both types of structures, viz., decentralization and bureaucratic, there is a certain amount of authority at all levels either for making decisions or in the execution of tasks.
The employees might take to a status approach if the organization projects hierarchical distinctions more as reflection of status than as reflection of differential competence. Employees feel that the hierarchical levels reflect differential competence only when they share the feeling that the organization is fair in its hiring and promotion practices. Both bureaucratic and ill-defined organizations cannot convince the members that hierarchical distinctions are reflections of the differential competence of the members, because in neither set-up, persons are selected or placed on positions because they fit those positions well.
In the case of status approach, superiors see their ability to control their subordinates as source of their status rather than as a means to direct their work towards solving the problems. Status-conscious superiors will protect their status in the eyes of their subordinates by coercing them to submit to them. They will be less concerned about their subordinates’ contributions and more concerned about their subordinates’ recognition of their superiority. They are touchy and ego-defensive. One of the dysfunctions of centralization of authority is the operation of the status approach to authority at lower levels of the organization.
Problem-solving approach is a contrast to status approach. In problem-solving approach, the persons use their authority in helping subordinates to solve the problems.
Co-Operative Versus Individual Competitive Approach
Under co-operative approach, the employees are encouraged to work for common goals and no employee is put in competition with another as in the case of competitive approach. The rewards are linked with the performance of the group members rather than with the achievement of individual members. In the cooperative approach, an atmosphere of mutual understanding and trust prevails. The members are aware of each other’s strengths and weaknesses and capitalize on their knowledge. The co-operative approach develops an atmosphere where the functions are coordinated. In the group climate the mutual acceptance contributes to status and recognition. The ability of the group members to be mutually helpful also leads to the satisfaction of their need for power.
Employee-Task Fit Versus Lack Of Employee-Task Fit
In certain organizations, the tasks are assigned according to the ability and competence of the persons. For example, from among those having the same technical background the company might select some for the job of sales executives while it might emphasize interpersonal relations for the positions of technical supervisors in charge of sub-assemblies. The persons experience meaningfulness and challenge in their work when it calls for the best of their abilities and when the task is of moderate difficulty. He also learns the better way of doing the work. The person-task fit activates the higher-order needs.
Performance-Based Reward Versus Expediency Reward
Some organizations make conscious attempts to effectively link reward with the effort of the employees through the use of techniques such as Job Evaluation, Objective Performance Appraisal, Suggestion Scheme, and so on. According to theory of motivation to be discussed later, the management can expect the employee to work in a particular way only if the employee sees that he will be rewarded in terms of his various need satisfactions. This particular aspect of linking rewards with employee efforts and its bearing on their work motivation has been dealt with in detail by Porter and Lawler19. The employees will perceive that their effort is rewarded only if they feel (Vroom20 has pointed out that subjective feeling is more potent than reality in eliciting behaviour) that they have been assigned work which calls for their ability and that management rewards their efforts when warranted, through such measures as recognition of work (praise), giving promotions and merit increases, and assigning more responsibility. In a performance-based climate, the individual receives self-generating task-related feedback conducive for work motivation. The employees also feel that organization is objective in its approach21 and encourages employees initiative and growth.
Another aspect of performance-based reward is the question of individual versus group reward. The organization might be orienting towards individual approach in the sense it may reward individual’s behaviours such as the competitive output, or it might have group orientation, in the sense that it may reward behaviours which contribute to the goals of production in a section or Department such as the promptness with which people meet the demands of other sections, coordinative efforts, etc. In certain kinds of work such as those of supervisors in textile mills,22 pursuit towards the group goals weighs heavier than pursuits towards individual achievements.
In contrast, in the expediency-reward context, the employees do not feel that the organization rewards its employees either financially or otherwise according to their effort. They might feel that they should satisfy the membership requirements of an organization in order to justify the acceptance of the rewards.
High Performance Goals Versus Low Performance Goals
Certain organizations may set high goals of employee performance while others may rest content with the average level of employee performance which keeps the business going.
Likert23 points out the need for setting high performance goals. He says that the management system 4, which he advocates as successful and effective, “should have high performance aspirations, but this is not enough. Every member should have high performance aspirations as well. Since these high performance goals should not be imposed upon employees, there must be a mechanism through which employees can help set the high-level goals which the satisfaction of their own needs requires.”
Socio – Cultural System Of Employee Needs
Persons work in organizations for material and other gains. Studies on job satisfaction have shown that they try to satisfy monetary and non-monetary needs. Although doing something and that again well is itself encouraging to prompt action again, working calls for a number of physical and social conditions. The person enters the organization with certain dispositions and expectations rooted in the family, social, and cultural milieu. Organizations meet certain of their expectations and suppress others. The person undergoes a process of adaptation to organizational processes. Such individual adaptation is a constant and dynamic process. The persons as employees voluntarily submit to the organization by observing rules and codes of conduct. The persons accordingly behave in a formal organization in a more organized way than they do in their informal organizational life. The general outcome of the influence processes is winning of the organization over the employees. Such influence of the organization over the employees has direct bearing on their work performance, although the problems as to what kind of work performance is the consequence of what precise nature of influence, is not yet understood clearly.
Employee works or is prompted to work for the organization because, the organization fulfils certain of his needs or because the employee can expect in the organization opportunities for satisfaction of certain other needs. Conglomeration of needs is developed in the process of socio-cultural propensity for need satisfaction. The desire on the part of the employee to work in order to achieve certain things which he wants and which he can obtain in the process of work is referred to as motivation to work and the effort he actually puts in reflects in work performance.24
The needs which the employees seek to satisfy can be conveniently understood in terms of the Maslowian25 systems of needs, viz., (i) Physiological, (ii) Security, (iii) Social, (iv) Ego, and (v) Self-actualization. Each of the above classes of needs subsumes many specific needs. However, certain salient and specific needs which can be realized through certain conditions of specific organizational climate can be discussed. Physiological needs relate to food, shelter, and sex. Security needs include the need for continuous economic support, in the form of the job security, and steady income, the need for structure and the need to perceive consistency, and the related need of being able to predict a situation. In economic security, the concern is with economic gains. In emotional security, the concern is for structure and consistency in situations. The need for structure and consistency is reflected in the subordinate’s desire to anticipate the reaction of his boss. The subordinate wants his superior to be consistent. The need for security in the work setting reflects in the employee’s need for role clarity or the need to know about his tasks and procedures. Social needs involve the desire to maintain social relationships and involve acts instrumental to satisfaction of these. The need for nurturance, the need for succourance, seeking and granting approval, communicating (proper communication of work-related and personal issues by superiors to subordinates helps building up subordinates’ trust towards superiors), desire to subordinate individual interest to group interest, and so on are the reflections of the social needs. Ego needs include desires to dominate, to be powerful, to look respectful in the eyes of others (status), to control others, to keep others under surveillance, and so on. The need for power has been found to be negatively related to social need or the need for maintaining group relations26. The subordinate’s expectation that his superior allows him substantial freedom for action is a reflection of his need for power or the need to control the work situation by himself the work situation. There are studies showing that the needs for status and power do not contribute to task achievement. For instance, Menon27 found that high achievement-oriented supervisors in their task pursuits do not aspire for much freedom vis-à-vis satisfaction of their need for autonomy; they on the other hand, expect their superiors to provide them with support, involve them in organizational matters, share responsibility and power with them, and encourage their initiative. The need for self-actualization is referred to as the need for achievement28. Achievement need express itself in the desire to do a job well, using once knowledge and skills to be rewarded for accomplishment, to be recognized for good performance through feedback,29 to be able to control one’s situation for accomplishment of a task at hand through participation rather than through freedom per se, to be responsible for the job well done, to undertake work which is challenging and which involves moderate degree of risk or taking risk in relatively structured and predictive situations.30
Work Motivation
Labour efficiency is optimum when the labour costs per unit of production is lowest. Employees should put in their best effort as well as they should utilize their full time if labour cost per unit is to be kept lowest. The labour cost in the production cost per unit will increase if the employees work below the level of their optimum efficiency, or when they absent or fall sick. Although the employees do not have control over certain conditions such as falling sick which is due to factors outside their work life, they have control over their efficiency. Many of the studies such as reported by Roethlisberger and Dickson,31 and Whyte32 have shown that employees restrict their output voluntarily. Such voluntary restriction of output under wage incentive situations has also been found operating in the Indian business conditions.33 Apart from conscious restriction of efficiency, the employees withdraw their production effort through such mechanisms as absenting from work34 and involving in accidents35. Studies of job attitudes36 and motivation37 have brought out two main trends in the area of work motivation, viz., (i) Motivation versus Maintenance approach (also called Intrinsic Motivation versus Extrinsic Motivation), and (ii) Interaction of Multiple Need Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction.
Motivation versus Maintenance View
According to the motivation view, the individual put in their best and willing effort only when certain higher-order (task-related) needs as creative opportunity and challenge, and needs adjunct to these like responsibility and control over the task situation, are fulfilled. The permissible levels of output or work standard set in a work organization through techniques such as work study and collective bargaining are a step below the level which the employees can voluntarily make if they work assiduously and constructively. The sudden spurt in production when the employees respond to wage incentives illustrates the extra capacity of the employees. On the other hand, the employees meet the average levels according to maintenance view when the organizational conditions related to lower-order needs such as high wages, more fringe benefits, attractive and comfortable working conditions are met with. Failure to provide conditions related to lower-order needs makes the employees inefficient at work, through voluntary absenteeism, sickness and accidents, conflicts and rivalry, strikes and so on. Maintenance factors should be present before the motivational factors can operate. The need for the co-existence of conditions satisfying lower-order needs and those satisfying higher-order needs is shown in Menon’s study.38 He found that the high achievement-oriented supervisors are less efficient and lack satisfaction due to lack of chance for using their skill, for having learning experience, when their superiors do not lend support and do not encourage their initiative by means of their leadership style.
Interaction Of Multiple Need Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
According to this approach, employees’ drive to work is determined by the net outcome of satisfactions and dissatisfactions of multiple needs at different hierarchical levels. The employees strive towards the achievement of organizational goals if (i) the needs satisfied predominate over those dissatisfied, and (ii) if the satisfaction follows the hierarchical order in ascending fashion.
The second condition means that it is not appropriate to bring into play the needs at the higher levels before sufficient opportunity is given for the satisfaction of need systems at the lower levels. An example of this condition may be cited. The individual employees should not be put in competition such as in a piece rate wage incentive system when the group is heterogeneous in ability and when there is strong unionism; otherwise it will lead to interpersonal conflict and rivalry leading to restriction of production.
Organizational Climate Factors and Opportunities for Need Satisfaction and Need Dissatisfaction
Organizational climate characteristics provide opportunity for the satisfaction of certain needs, while they restrict the chance for the satisfaction of others. At the present stage of knowledge, the exact relationship is not known. However, there are studies which provide direct or indirect support to the relationships discussed here relating to one or more factors. A pattern of relationships has been conceived and presented in Exhibit 1. Although the proposed relationships call for statistical testing, their discussion should be helpful in understanding human behaviour. Exhibit 1 brings out the following findings. High structuring provides opportunity for the satisfaction security need and curtails the satisfaction of the needs for status and power, and the need for achievement. Low structuring (reflecting role ambiguity) provides opportunity for the dissatisfaction of the need for security, social need, the need for status and power, and the need for achievement. Moderate structuring provides opportunity for the satisfaction of the need for security and the need for social relationships. Compromising approach provides opportunity for the satisfaction of the need for status and power whereas the unilateral approach deprives the need for status and power.
Exhibit 1. Relationship between climate factors and satisfaction-dissatisfaction of employee need systems
Climate factors Physi-ological Safety & Security Social Status & Power Achie-vement
1a High Structuring N S N D D
1b Low Structuring N D D D D
1c Moderate Structuring N S S N N
2a Compromising N N N S N
2b Unilateral N N N D N
3a Warmth and Support N S S N N
3b Lack of Warmth and Support N D D N N
4a Expert Persuasion N N N S S
4b Coercion N D D D N
5a Co-operation N S S N N
5b Competitiveness in Group Situation N D D S N
6a Problem Solving Approach to Authority N N N S S
6b Status Approach to Authority N D D S N
7a Employee-Task Fit N N N S S
7b Lack of Employee-Task Fit N D N N N
8a Performance Based Reward N N N S S
8b Expediency Based Reward N D D D N
9a Setting High Performance Goals N N N S S
9b Setting Low Performance Goals N S S N N
10a High Risk Taking N D N S N
10b Complacency N S N N N
10c Moderate Risk Taking N S N S S
11a Decentralization N D D S S
11b Centralization N D D D N
S stands for “the opportunity provided for the satisfaction of the need”
D stands for “the situation leading to dissatisfaction or deprivation of the need”.
N stands for “need satisfaction unaffected”.
Providing warmth and support allows the employees to satisfy their need for security and the need for social relationships. Lack of warmth and support deprives them of opportunity to satisfy their need for security and the need for social relationships. Expert persuasion provides room for the satisfaction of the need for status and power, and the need for achievement. The coercive approach restricts chance for the satisfaction of the need for security, the need for social relationships, and the need for status and power. Cooperation provides opportunity to satisfy the need for security and the need for social relationships. Competitiveness in a group situation, on the other hand, restricts the chance for the satisfaction of the need for security and the need for social relationships. It, however, provides opportunity for the satisfaction of the need for status and power. Problem-solving approach to authority offers chance for the satisfaction of the need for status and power, and the need for achievement. On the other hand, status approach to authority while offering chance for the satisfaction of the need for status and power, curtails the need for security, and the need for social relationships.
Employee-task fit creates situations helpful for the satisfaction of the need for status and power, and the need for achievement. Lack of employee-task fit thwarts the employees’ need for security. Performance-based reward creates conditions for the satisfaction of the need for status and power, and the need for achievement. Expediency-based reward creates conditions detrimental to the satisfaction of the need for security, the need for social relationships, and the need for status and power. Setting up high-performance goals creates conditions for the realization of the need for status and power, and the need for achievement. Setting up low performance goals contributes to the satisfaction of the need for security and the need for social relationships. Encouraging high risks thwarts the need for security, although it invokes the employee need for status and power. Encouraging complacency on the contrary, contributes only to the satisfaction of security needs. When the employee is encouraged to take moderate risk it contributes to the satisfaction of the need for security, the need for status and power, and the need for achievement. Decentralization opens up chances for the satisfaction of the need for status and power and the need for achievement, while centralization thwarts the needs for security, social relationships status and power, and achievement.
Organizational Typologies and Work Motivation
At least five kinds of organizations can be distinguished in terms of the technological practices as well as the eleven organizational climate factors discussed earlier. They are :
1. Technologically Backward and Punitive
2. Technologically Progressive and Punitive
3. Technologically Backward and Maintenance-oriented
4. Technologically Progressive and Maintenance-oriented
5. Developmental
Technologically backward and Punitive, and Technologically Progressive and Punitive
In technologically backward and punitive organizations, the top management hardly introduces technological improvements and innovations. They are insensitive to the requirements of the changing market conditions. They tolerate profitability at a level lower than the maximum possible under efficient conditions. Such organizations are low on structure, unilateral, low on providing warmth and support, and enforce compliance. They encourage competition in the group through individual wage incentives, favouritism, etc. The members in such organizations, view authority as a source of status. The organization never makes conscious attempts to fit the employees to the jobs through proper selection procedure. The members do not perceive any relation between their work and the credit they get. The organization rewards its employees as a matter of expediency. If it finds that it can capitalize on certain abilities of an individual to serve its short-term goals, it puts him ahead of other employees who are generally assets to the organization. In other words, the Personnel Policy decisions are determined by the situational contingencies. The organization might set too high production goals to the individuals without creating the pre-conditions. It might encourage its employees to take high risks and once in a way reward such behaviour too. The authority and power for making all the decisions and even for administrative action is invested in the hands of the top few.
Technologically progressive and punitive organizations may create all the above conditions of organizational climate, except that it constantly watches for opportunities of technological improvements. It adopts a kind of Taylorian philosophy in the management of business.
Technologically Backward and Maintenance-Oriented versus Technologically Progressive and Maintenance-Oriented
In “technologically backward and maintenance-oriented” organizations, top managements are not competitive in running business. Technological changes are hardly introduced as a way to increase productivity of the plant. Rigidity in production planning is usually present, but not product innovation. Corresponding to the above technological practices, such organizations may be low on structuring, unilateral, enforce compliance, encourage competition, and relatively high on status approach to authority. It may hardly place the employees according to merit and establish link between effort and reward. Goals within easy reach of the individual are set. No particular incentive is provided for taking risk. Only persons at the top are involved in decision-making. The superiors are encouraged to provide warmth and support to their subordinates. The members are given economic security.
In the case of “technologically progressive and maintenance-oriented” organizations, the top management tries to innovate plants technologically as a way to productivity, while at the same time maintains a happy and contented work force by providing a welfare-oriented climate. It introduces the organizational climate conditions of maintenance discussed in the preceding paragraph. Top managements in such organizations believe in achieving production through mechanization. They also perceive that the employees are inevitable aids to production at a particular stage of technological development and so the need to keep them happy.
Developmental Organizations
Developmental organizations are aware of the potentialities of technology and their obligation for creating employment. Their decisions reflect not only economic considerations but also their socio-economic concerns. Such organizations develop managers who are not only masters of technology but those who have ability to make economic decisions in a particular socio-cultural context. They adapt technological innovations to the management of human organizations. Such organizations are technologically more innovative. Parallel to the technical system, they create the following conditions of organizational climate conducive for optimizing employee work motivation. The top management structures the tasks moderately and develops clarity of rules. It is compromising and flexible, and weighs the merit of the situation in making decisions. The employees are mutually helpful and supportive. They attempt to influence others by making them see the merits of the case rather than by coercion.
Such organizations prefer to encourage co-operative behaviour rather than making employees individually competitive. They do not make employees individually competitive especially if the situation is such that the social equity is thwarted. They adopt the problem-solving approach more often. Attempts are made to match the employees and their job requirements and reward them according to their efforts. They may use scientific selection procedures and techniques such as Job Analysis, Job Evaluation, Objective Performance Appraisal, and so on. They set high performance goals and encourage the employees to take good risks. The employees at all levels of the hierarchy share authority, power, and responsibility matched with their respective roles. Employees develop orientation towards the overall goals of the organization and towards coordination of functions.
Indian Industrial and Business Organizations
In the previous section, it was pointed out that the industrial organizations can be classified under one of the five types. In this section, let us attempt classification of Indian industrial organizations. Indian industrial organizations are too large and heterogeneous a universe that makes generalization difficult. However, as a first step in the direction, Indian industrial organizations may be classified into four types, viz., (i) small, privately-owned Indian family concerns, (ii) large companies having private Indian ownership, (iii) companies owned by state (the so-called public sector), and (iv) Indian Private enterprises having foreign collaboration
Small Privately-Owned Indian Companies
These companies may be said to reflect the features of “technologically backward and punitive” type of organizations. Certain conditions of organizational culture and climate as revealed in studies of these organizations may be discussed.
Organizational Climate
Most of these organizations have no organizational charts indicating the roles and the role relationships. They hardly induct the employees. The employees hardly know their duties, authority, accountability, and responsibility at the time of joining the organization. Their superiors and colleagues usually serve as sources of such information. Ambiguity in responsibility leads to conflict in organizational communication. For instance, it has been found that the bypassing of the lines of command is common. The chief executive will entrust the responsibility to the General Manager for the duties of Departmental Heads and at the same time allow the Departmental Heads to bypass the General Manager and report to him undermining the authority of the General Manager. There is hardly any job structuring. This creates a situation in which the job designations rarely reflect the duties, salary and authority (financial and personnel discretionary powers). Such ambiguity leads to lack of coordination. Lack of coordination is reflected in a situation in which one subordinate reports to two or more superiors in the line of command. Lack of coordination of roles also leads to interpersonal conflict and employee strains. There are hardly attempts to select and place the employees according to their merit. The Top Executive who is invariably an owner-manager is too possessive of his organization. He has no trust in his subordinates. This develops into a situation in which the people at different levels lack mutual trust. The Top Executive reserves to himself the authority in decision-making. He develops a trusted group of people in vital management functions. These people are related to the chief executive through family ties, social origin, etc. Trustworthiness and loyalty are emphasized as qualities required rather than merit. Top management selects persons for new jobs based on such ascriptive criteria as belonging to the community or caste to which the chief executive belongs. The organization is hardly interested in training and developing employees. It does not institute any systematic personnel appraisal programmes. Thus, a condition is created in which the employees do not perceive clearly the relationship between their efforts and the financial rewards administered by the organization. In controlling the employees, the organization uses coercive approach. The employees are criticized or punished for their faults. Competitive rather than cooperative approach is employed. The organization does not train the employees, with the result that wide variations in abilities among the employees exist. Yet it uses individual wage incentive. Punitive methods are used in dealing with the disciplinary problems emerging from the individual incentive situation. The organization does not set high goals of performance and output and is satisfied with the levels of output which are often below the optimum. The organization adopts a unilateral approach in the sense that it does not admit of any confrontations, with the result that it does not recognize and deal with unions.
Large Companies Having Private Indian Ownership
These companies are offshoots of the small privately-owned organizations. They thus show many of the climatic and cultural conditions witnessed in small organizations. They can be referred to as “Technologically Progressive and Maintenance-Oriented”. They are technologically more progressive than small organizations. They are low on structure in the sense that roles and role relationships lack clarity and line of command is violated by bypassing the positions. Rewards are not tied up with efforts and no scientific appraisal is followed. The employees are mot encouraged to take good risks. At times they are encouraged to take risks without providing the necessary support. Employee skills and abilities are not utilized properly. However, these large organizations are more favourably predisposed to hiring trained professionals. They employ specialists such as industrial engineers, marketing economists, personnel researchers and so on, although all of them are only in the advisory capacity. The authority for making decisions on policy matters and to a large extent on administrative matters rests with the top few individuals. There is one-way communication downward. Submission to and dependence upon authority is encouraged at all levels.
These large organizations differ from the small organizations in terms of (i) welfare orientation, and (ii) relative flexibility. They provide better wages, fringe benefits, social security measures and more security of jobs compared to small organizations. These organizations in fact provide much opportunity outside the work for the expression of certain higher-order needs of the employees such as the need for creative expression, need for responsibility, need for power, etc. The opportunities for the satisfaction of these needs within the plants are not encouraged.
These large organizations are more compromising in the sense that they permit opposing forces to co-exist. They do not view union growth and movement as a necessary evil. They deal with the problems of employment through unions, perhaps without bothering much about the canons of the bargaining process. They however attempt to live in peace with the unions.
The Indian Private companies having foreign collaboration retail most of the characteristic described above. Plum salaries and excellent employee well fare facilities are provided which are often much above those provided by large Indian companies are provided. More mechanization and computerization are introduced. Though some attempts are maid to introduce progressive and best HRM practices, not much success is achieved. The traditional Indian socio-cultural ethos seem to have strong hold with very little penetration of Global and universalistic work culture and technological practices.
State-Owned Companies (Public Enterprises)
Public Enterprises can be referred to as “Technologically Progressive and Maintenance-Oriented” organizations. The organizational culture and behaviour are comparable to those of large private-owned organizations in many respects. The roles are too structured. There is clarity in duties, reporting relationships, and authority and responsibility in the vertical structure of the organization (because of the emphasis on rules and procedures). This high structure provides emotional security to the employees. Due to rigidity in the structure, there is no horizontal coordination. Each channel in the hierarchical structure is relatively independent of other. As such, the employees in each function do not see their contribution to an overall goal. Rigidity in structure also restricts individual freedom. Adherence to procedures is emphasized as an end in itself. Employees are not selected to meet the requirements of the jobs. Often those making selections hardly know what a particular job requires in terms of human skills.39 This has its negative effects on employee appraisal. Skills and progress are not evaluated objectively. The rewards are not administered according to performance. Rewards such as promotions are given to employees based on criteria such as seniority, conformity to rules, conduct, etc. In all such reward procedures, the link between employee effort and reward is missing. The employees are not encouraged to take risks. Lack of employee freedom, absence of functional coordination, and the reward structure induce employee complacency. Correspondingly, the organization does not set up high performance goals. Public sector organizations are progressive technologically. They make heavy investments and use employee specialists. They are more progressive than other types of Indian industries in using specialists. They institute research and development programmes. They, however, do not involve these specialists in the mainstream of organizational activities. In employee control, the approach used differs from that prevalent in privately-owned organizations. In public enterprises, the superiors hardly use coercive approach. The approach used is one of status approach. The hierarchical levels reflect different levels of status. The subordinates submit to the superiors by virtue of their positional status. Thus, conformity is inbuilt in the structure, and the conformity pattern is predictable. The organization provides economic security and provides welfare and social insurance benefits. As the scope for interpersonal interaction is limited under Rule-orientation, the employees hardly derive any social satisfaction in their formal role relationships. However, as the organization does not restrict the cohesiveness of the group through Personnel And Technological Practices, an informal organization of employees develops for social satisfaction. Lack of ownership motivation at almost all the levels and lack of involvement in organizational decision-making encourage the development of groups and associations including members at higher levels.
Summary
Brief reviews given about Indian Business and Industry clearly show to change all of them into a Developmental type of Organization, a typology developed by the author. This typology can be used for bringing about the desired changes in the Indian Organizations for all round benefits.
References
1.D.Katz, N.Maccoby, G.Gurin and L.C.Floor, Productivity, Supervision and Morale Among Railroad Workers, Ann Arbor, Institute for Social Science Research, 1951; and A.Chatterjee, “Satisfaction and Productivity : A Study of Morale and Teamwork in Industry with Respect to Productivity”, unpublished doctoral thesis, Bangalore, Indian Institute of Science, 1961.
2.H.Baumgartel, “The Penetration of Modern Management Technology and Organizational Practices in Indian Business Organizations”, Indian Administrative and Management Review, 1971, 3,2.
3. Ibid
4. H.Baumgartel, op. cit.; and K.Chowdhry and A.K.Pal, “Production Planning and Organizational Morale : A Case from India”, Human Organizations, 1957, 15, 4, 11-16.
5.Baumgartel, op. cit.
6.K.S.Basu, “Management Gap in Indian Industry”, Commerce, Annual Number, 1968, 117, 40-42.
7. See, for example, G.H.Litwin and R.A.Stringer, Motivation and Organizational Climate, Harvard University, Division of Research, Graduate School of Business Administration, 1968.
8. I.Dayal, “Management”, Seminar, Annual 149, January 1972, 64-69.
9. R.L.Kahn, R.P.Wolf, T.P.Quinn, J.P.Snoek and R.A.Rosenthal, Organizational Stress; Studies in Role Conflict, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1967.
10. A.Sreekumar Menon, “Performance Effects”, New Delhi, Shri Ram Centre for Industrial Relations and Human Resources, 1971, unpublished manuscript.
11. S.K.Roy, Corporate Image in India, new Delhi, Shri Ram Centre for Industrial Relations and Human Resources, 1974.
12. J.Singh, “Management Practices in India Today : A Critique”, Indian Management, 1970, 9, 9, 3-9.
13. W.F.White, Money and Motivation : An Analysis of Incentives in Industry, New York, Harper, 1955; V.H.Vroom, Work and Motivation, New York, John Wiley, 1964; and A.W.Kornhauser, Mental health of the Industrial Worker : A Detroit Study, New York, John Wiley, 1965.
14. A.Sreekumar Menon, 1971, op. cit.
15. Ibid.
16. R.Likert, Human Organization : Its Management and Value, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1967.
17. I.Dayal, “Management”, op. cit.
18. J.Singh, op. cit.
19. L.W.Porter nd E.E.Lawler, III Managerial Attitudes and Performance, New York, Irwin Dorsey, 1968.
20. V.H.Vroom, Some Personality Determinants of the Effects of Participation, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 1960.
21. P.Chattopadhay, “Managerial Revolution in India”, Indian Manager, July 1969, 8
22. V.K.Pathak, “Wage Incentive, Productive Efforts and Perception Change”, Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 1969, 4, 4.
23. R.Likert, op.cit.
24. A.Sreekumar Menon, “Effectiveness of Wage Incentives: Analysis of Behavioural Processes”, in G.K.Suri (ed.), Wage Incentives: Theory and Practice, New Delhi, Shri Ram Centre for Industrial Relations and human Resources, 1973.
25. A.H.Maslow, Motivation and Personality, New York, Harper and Row, 1954.
26. G.h.Litwin and r.a. Striner, op.cit.
27. A.Sreekumar Menon, 1971, op. cit.
28. F.Herberg, B,Mausner and B.B.Snyderman, The Motivation to work, New York, John Wiley, Second Edn. 1966; D.C. Mc-Clelland and S.K.Winter, Motivating Economic Achievement, New York, Collier-MacMillan, 1971; and G.H.Litwin and R.A.Stringer, op.cit.
29. E.E.Lawler, Pay and Organizational Effectiveness. New York, McGRaw-Hill, 1971.
30. J.W.Atkinson, “Motivational Determinants of Risk-Taking Behavior”, in J.W.Atkinson and N.T.Feather (eds.), A Theory of Achievement Motivation, New York, John Wiley, 1966.
31. F.J.Roethlisberger and W.J.Dickson, Management and the Worker, Masschusetts, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1964.
32. W.F.Whyte, op. cit.
33. G.K.Suri, “Continuing Effectiveness of an Incentive Application; A Quantitative Evaluation”, New Delhi, Shri Ram Centre for Industrial Relations and Human Resources, 1972, mimeo.
34. A.Sreekumar Menon and H.Hanumanthiah, “Productive Drive and Absenteeism”, Business Herald, April, 1969, 4, 10-12.
35. A.Sreekumar Menon, “Interpersonal Relations and Industrial Safety”, Kerala Productivity Journal, October-December, 1969, 4, 4.
36. F.Herzberg et al., op. cit.
37. L.W.Porter and E.E.Lawler, op. cit.; and v.h.vroom, op. cit.
38. A Sreekumar Menon, 1971, op. cit.
39. K.Chowdhry, Change-in Organizations, Bombay, Lalvani Publishing House, 1970.
In order to achieve this, an understanding of the conditions in an organization having bearing on employee morale and their motivation (desire) to work is necessary. Keeping this in view, this paper discusses some of the conditions in organizations under the headings: Organizational Climate; Socio-Cultural System of Employee Needs; Work Motivation; Organizational Climate Factors and Opportunities for Need Satisfaction and Need Dissatisfaction; Organizational Typologies and Work Motivation; and Indian Industrial and Business Organizations.
Organizational Climate
Any business and industrial organization is a techno-socio-psychological system. Technology is a broad term used to include means and procedures instrumental in discharging the functions of an organization. The “means and procedures” depend upon the goals of the organization. Let us consider, for instance, a company manufacturing pharmaceuticals. Machines and other automatic and semi-automatic devices are used in preparing pharmaceutical products. Apart from these, other means and procedures necessary for achieving the goals of a pharmaceutical company are also adopted. The pharmaceutical company purchases chemicals and other raw materials, keeps inventory of items, checks the quality, meets the needs of the consumer, develops new processes and techniques, expands and diversifies, etc. These functions are discharged appropriately by adopting the so-called modern management practices. Use of Techniques such as quality control, research and development, work or output measurement, operations research are some of the technological tools used by industry.
The management practices which a company adopts are interdependent in nature. This means that a company which adopts one management practice (called modern) will generally be predisposed favourably towards a number of other practices. For instance, the management which undertakes a systematic analysis of its product market will equally be concerned with controlling the quality of production. Baumgartel2 in a study on penetration of modern management practices in Indian business organizations found that the companies which are innovative adopt a number of modern management practices.
As opposed to technological practices, there are practices related to management of personnel. Personnel practices ail proper administration of labour resources just as technological practices help rationalizing methods and procedures. Some of the personnel practices are proper hiring practices, employee development programmes, use of job evaluation in developing job descriptions, salary administration, and so on.
Just as the technological practices reflect part of the larger organizational culture, the personnel management practices also reflect the larger organizational culture. This part of the organizational culture is referred to as organizational climate.
Organizational Climate Defined.
In production organizations, there is the task (mechanical)-individual interaction. The person deals with machines, materials, or data and behaves in prescribed ways, as per the dictates of the organization. The organization builds up certain expectations, provides certain need fulfillment opportunities, and controls certain actual and potential behaviours. These socio-personal interaction processes constitute organizational climate.
Baumgartel3 defines organizational climate along the following lines. “Organizational climate is a product of leadership practices, communication patterns, enduring and systematic characteristics of the working relationships among persons and divisions of any particular organization.” He considers the following characteristics observable in organizational life as determining the developmental organizational climate. They are :
1. Growth-orientation
2. Providing opportunity to executives to use new knowledge
3. Willingness to train the executives
4. Stimulate and approve of innovations, and experimentation
5. Higher management being considerate of lower management
6. Giving freedom to set own performance goals
7. Involving various hierarchical levels in decision-making
8. Showing confidence in competence and judgement of top management
9. Having free and open communication within management
10. Using performance as major criteria for promotions
11. Existence of interpersonal trust among executives
12. Not having restrictions through rules and procedures
13. Arranging conferences and group discussions
14. Absence of interpersonal conflict and rivalry
15. Planning new products.
Technological Practices and Organizational Climate
Both technological practices and organizational climate reflect in organizational structure, administrative practices, and management control systems. Although one may find certain technological practices co-existing with certain organizational climate factors, such associations are not universal. This fact has come out in a number of Indian studies4. Baumgartel5 correlated items on modern management practices with items on Organizational climate and found them yielding low correlations. This implies that the technological practices and organizational climate are mutually independent or orthogonal in nature.
Technological practices contribute to mechanical aspects of organizational production, whereas favourable organizational climate contributes to work efficiency vis-à-vis employee motivation. This view is attested by Basu6 when he says that “investment and technology are by themselves insufficient for the growth of the economy, it is only when competent management is brought to bear on enterprises that the latter can achieve the objectives for which they were created”.
Organizational climate can be described in terms of some of the following characteristics7 :
1. Risk-Taking versus Complacent
2. Compromising versus Unilateral
3. Unstructuring versus Structuring
4. Warmth and Support versus Lack of Warmth and Support
5. Decentralization versus Centralization
6. Expert Persuasion versus Coercion
7. Problem Solving Approach versus Status Approach to Authority
8. Co-operative versus Competitive Approach
9. Employee-Task Fit versus Lack of Employee-Task Fit
10. Performance-based Reward versus Expediency Reward
11. High Performance Goals versus Low Performance Goals
Some of the organizational actions which the above aspects characterize may be indicated.
Risk-Taking Versus Complacent
In running business and production, the organizations need take risks (acting under conditions of relative uncertainty). Risks might be of varied kinds, such as those taken in the event of technological decisions, which have bearing on employees and those which are related to personnel matters per se. Any issue throws us many courses (many a times mutually conflicting) of actions. No single approach is normally apparent in the solution of a problem. This is much more so in the complex world of business. Apart from the uncertainty of the situation, top managements might differ in the extent to which they encourage the employees to take risk. Some top managements may restrict the chance of their lower-level managers and workers taking risk by designing authoritarian set-up and practices; while others might encourage risk-taking at all levels by setting up decentralized structures.
Compromising Versus Unilateral
Certain top managements are unilateral in their approach. They resist compromise. They are more rigid than flexible. Dayal8 refers to such orientation of managements as “…absence of the ethics of collaboration”. He holds that in such organizations management-union and inter-departmental relationships breed suspicion and distrust. Unilateral organizations permit only low levels of conflict and confrontation. On the contrary, the compromising organizations think that the conflicts in interests and purposeful confrontations between different groups (like management and the workers or trade unions) are inevitable and healthy signs of openness in organizational communication. Critical attitudes are viewed by the management as helpful in receiving useful suggestion and feedback for its improvement.
Unstructuring Versus Structuring
Organizations may differ in the degree of clarity in roles at various hierarchical levels. In some cases, role ambiguity (opposite of role clarity) might be substantial. The role ambiguity is substantial when the job duties are extremely unstructured and unspecified. In a situation of high ambiguity, the job holders lack clear understanding of their duties, responsibilities, and positions in the authority structure. The deleterious effects of role ambiguity and role conflict (the situation in which a subordinate is under conflicting demands from more than one superior) in terms of tension and anxiety and poor efficiency have been brought out by Kahn et al.9 The study by Menon10 brings out certain interesting findings regarding clarity in tasks and in reporting relationships. More is the subordinate expectation that his superior should be specific in assigning work, and less the tendency of the superior to be specific, more is the former’s dissatisfaction with his superior’s leadership and less his feeling that his superior and colleagues support him. In such a situation, he hardly experiences learning and work responsibility. Even employees who want to do their best (achievement-oriented) look for role clarity.
Lack of role clarity encourages arbitrariness in decision making and management practices. In an ambiguous organizational situation, the manager’s action is determined by expediency of the situation and his personal skill and competence and individual personality. There is too much reliance on the individual executive. A study by Roy11 reveals that one of the dysfunctional elements in the working of private sector industry in India is the arbitrariness and nepotism on the part of management. There are hardly any work rules and procedures defining the authority and responsibility of the employees at different levels. Singh12, discussing the management practices in private organizations in India, says that “organizational structures of many of the largest Indian enterprises are haphazard; organizational charts are rate and even where they exist they are a secret. Managerial jobs are seldom defined or described.”
Although the above discussion points out the dysfunctional nature of role ambiguity, it is to be borne in mind that the other extreme, viz., high structure (role clarity), is also dysfunctional. High structuring delimits the freedom on the part of individual employees and even depersonalizes the work (this feature is commonly referred to as rule-orientation in bureaucratic settings). High-structure situation has the following characteristics of organizational behaviour. Interpersonal interaction, horizontal and vertical, is minimum. The work activities are hardly coordinated. Group goals are not visible for the individual employees. The opportunity for self-determination and participation is minimum. A number of investigators13 have found that job satisfaction, mental health, and level of performance are all directly related to opportunities for self-expression, self-control, participation, and individual freedom and responsibility. Menon14 found that the personal work efficiency of supervisors is high when their superiors provide them with personal support and encourage them by involving them in organizational decision-making.
Warmth and Support Versus Lack Of Warmth And Support
Organizations differ in the extent to which they provide personal and work-related support, and warmth and friendliness in interpersonal relationships. The members in the organization at various levels need know what is expected of them in relation to others. Those who are higher in the hierarchy and who have the role of coordinating activities at the lower levels communicate to those who are below them. The subordinates also look for friendly relationships with their superiors. Menon15 has pointed out the following important aspects of warmth and support in interpersonal relationships. He found that supervisors felt responsible and committed when they experienced satisfaction due to opportunities in the job for learning experience and due to opportunities in the job for learning experience and due to its challenging nature in interpersonal atmosphere characterized by support from superiors. The support from the supervisors seems to be instrumental to the development of responsibility and work commitment especially on the part of employees who do not look for detailed work instructions. Apart from the support facilitating goal achievement it also seems to lead to the feeling of prestige in the group particularly on the part of those who desire social relationships.
Decentralization Versus Centralization
In certain organizations, persons at different levels of hierarchy possess authority according to their levels of decision-making and task execution. Such organizations have a decentralized structure. In a decentralized set-up persons at lower levels interact with those in the parallel and interrelated levels as well as with those immediately higher. They have sufficient freedom in their areas of functioning and also in contributing to the overall objectives.16 The increased interaction helps build better coordination. Again, in such a participatory set-up, the persons are clear about their goals and their commitment is strengthened through group pressure. Participation in decision-making calls for better abilities than participation in executive functions. In a decentralized set-up, the superiors have confidence in the competence of their subordinates. There is mutual trust among persons. The organization grants adequate responsibility and commensurate authority.
In contrast, in centralized organizations, the authority rests in the hands of a few top echelons. The subordinates receive specific instructions. The freedom and the conditions for the expression of the individual’s talents are limited. The centralization of authority might take two forms: (i) formation of bureaucratic set-up (emphasis on rules and procedures), and (ii) an unstable and ill-defined organizational structures. The first condition is seen in the management system of Public enterprises in India17 and the second in the management of Private enterprises in India18.
Under Bureaucratic set-up, the individual goes by rules. In such rule-oriented structures, the individual hardly takes any risk. With everyone following the fixed path, co-ordination of functions is hardly achieved. The persons in a Bureaucratic structure work for their individual goals rather than for the overall organizational goals. Lacking awareness of real goals, the employees derive satisfaction of goal achievement by ardently following the rules. In the context of increasing complexity of functions and specialization, persons who lack individual goal orientation and appreciation of common goals work for cross-purposes.
Unstable and ill-defined organizational climate is characterized by the following organizational actions. The subordinates are given specific instructions and are closely supervised. As many control checks as possible and are permitted by technology are instituted. This type of organization follows no line of command. The higher echelons have direct access to all levels and hardly any question of bypassing the authority arises.
Expert Persuasion Versus Coercive Approach
Persuasive approach in an organization is characterized by a number of following kinds of behaviours. Superior guides the subordinate towards larger organizational goals without unduly restricting freedom on the part of the latter. He makes available to him the facilities. He is friendly and accepting. He is consistent and fair in practices. He works towards the well-being of his subordinate. He lends adequate support and help.
In contrast, the superior who adopts a coercive approach exhibits certain other behaviours. His main concern is to see that his subordinate submits to him. He uses punishment to control his subordinate. His predominant set is to point out the mistakes of his subordinate rather than correcting him and making him learn new experience. He is, more often than not, inconsistent in administering punishments. Such a superior is hardly rated as fair by subordinates. Superior develops in the minds of subordinate feelings of failure and thus coerces compliance to his ways, which are right by virtue of his being a superior. Different kinds of punishments such as criticism, disapproval, withholding relevant task-related and personal information, withholding positive feedback, providing false feedback in the form of criticism, etc., are administered.
Problem-Solving Approach Versus Status Approach To Authority
In both types of structures, viz., decentralization and bureaucratic, there is a certain amount of authority at all levels either for making decisions or in the execution of tasks.
The employees might take to a status approach if the organization projects hierarchical distinctions more as reflection of status than as reflection of differential competence. Employees feel that the hierarchical levels reflect differential competence only when they share the feeling that the organization is fair in its hiring and promotion practices. Both bureaucratic and ill-defined organizations cannot convince the members that hierarchical distinctions are reflections of the differential competence of the members, because in neither set-up, persons are selected or placed on positions because they fit those positions well.
In the case of status approach, superiors see their ability to control their subordinates as source of their status rather than as a means to direct their work towards solving the problems. Status-conscious superiors will protect their status in the eyes of their subordinates by coercing them to submit to them. They will be less concerned about their subordinates’ contributions and more concerned about their subordinates’ recognition of their superiority. They are touchy and ego-defensive. One of the dysfunctions of centralization of authority is the operation of the status approach to authority at lower levels of the organization.
Problem-solving approach is a contrast to status approach. In problem-solving approach, the persons use their authority in helping subordinates to solve the problems.
Co-Operative Versus Individual Competitive Approach
Under co-operative approach, the employees are encouraged to work for common goals and no employee is put in competition with another as in the case of competitive approach. The rewards are linked with the performance of the group members rather than with the achievement of individual members. In the cooperative approach, an atmosphere of mutual understanding and trust prevails. The members are aware of each other’s strengths and weaknesses and capitalize on their knowledge. The co-operative approach develops an atmosphere where the functions are coordinated. In the group climate the mutual acceptance contributes to status and recognition. The ability of the group members to be mutually helpful also leads to the satisfaction of their need for power.
Employee-Task Fit Versus Lack Of Employee-Task Fit
In certain organizations, the tasks are assigned according to the ability and competence of the persons. For example, from among those having the same technical background the company might select some for the job of sales executives while it might emphasize interpersonal relations for the positions of technical supervisors in charge of sub-assemblies. The persons experience meaningfulness and challenge in their work when it calls for the best of their abilities and when the task is of moderate difficulty. He also learns the better way of doing the work. The person-task fit activates the higher-order needs.
Performance-Based Reward Versus Expediency Reward
Some organizations make conscious attempts to effectively link reward with the effort of the employees through the use of techniques such as Job Evaluation, Objective Performance Appraisal, Suggestion Scheme, and so on. According to theory of motivation to be discussed later, the management can expect the employee to work in a particular way only if the employee sees that he will be rewarded in terms of his various need satisfactions. This particular aspect of linking rewards with employee efforts and its bearing on their work motivation has been dealt with in detail by Porter and Lawler19. The employees will perceive that their effort is rewarded only if they feel (Vroom20 has pointed out that subjective feeling is more potent than reality in eliciting behaviour) that they have been assigned work which calls for their ability and that management rewards their efforts when warranted, through such measures as recognition of work (praise), giving promotions and merit increases, and assigning more responsibility. In a performance-based climate, the individual receives self-generating task-related feedback conducive for work motivation. The employees also feel that organization is objective in its approach21 and encourages employees initiative and growth.
Another aspect of performance-based reward is the question of individual versus group reward. The organization might be orienting towards individual approach in the sense it may reward individual’s behaviours such as the competitive output, or it might have group orientation, in the sense that it may reward behaviours which contribute to the goals of production in a section or Department such as the promptness with which people meet the demands of other sections, coordinative efforts, etc. In certain kinds of work such as those of supervisors in textile mills,22 pursuit towards the group goals weighs heavier than pursuits towards individual achievements.
In contrast, in the expediency-reward context, the employees do not feel that the organization rewards its employees either financially or otherwise according to their effort. They might feel that they should satisfy the membership requirements of an organization in order to justify the acceptance of the rewards.
High Performance Goals Versus Low Performance Goals
Certain organizations may set high goals of employee performance while others may rest content with the average level of employee performance which keeps the business going.
Likert23 points out the need for setting high performance goals. He says that the management system 4, which he advocates as successful and effective, “should have high performance aspirations, but this is not enough. Every member should have high performance aspirations as well. Since these high performance goals should not be imposed upon employees, there must be a mechanism through which employees can help set the high-level goals which the satisfaction of their own needs requires.”
Socio – Cultural System Of Employee Needs
Persons work in organizations for material and other gains. Studies on job satisfaction have shown that they try to satisfy monetary and non-monetary needs. Although doing something and that again well is itself encouraging to prompt action again, working calls for a number of physical and social conditions. The person enters the organization with certain dispositions and expectations rooted in the family, social, and cultural milieu. Organizations meet certain of their expectations and suppress others. The person undergoes a process of adaptation to organizational processes. Such individual adaptation is a constant and dynamic process. The persons as employees voluntarily submit to the organization by observing rules and codes of conduct. The persons accordingly behave in a formal organization in a more organized way than they do in their informal organizational life. The general outcome of the influence processes is winning of the organization over the employees. Such influence of the organization over the employees has direct bearing on their work performance, although the problems as to what kind of work performance is the consequence of what precise nature of influence, is not yet understood clearly.
Employee works or is prompted to work for the organization because, the organization fulfils certain of his needs or because the employee can expect in the organization opportunities for satisfaction of certain other needs. Conglomeration of needs is developed in the process of socio-cultural propensity for need satisfaction. The desire on the part of the employee to work in order to achieve certain things which he wants and which he can obtain in the process of work is referred to as motivation to work and the effort he actually puts in reflects in work performance.24
The needs which the employees seek to satisfy can be conveniently understood in terms of the Maslowian25 systems of needs, viz., (i) Physiological, (ii) Security, (iii) Social, (iv) Ego, and (v) Self-actualization. Each of the above classes of needs subsumes many specific needs. However, certain salient and specific needs which can be realized through certain conditions of specific organizational climate can be discussed. Physiological needs relate to food, shelter, and sex. Security needs include the need for continuous economic support, in the form of the job security, and steady income, the need for structure and the need to perceive consistency, and the related need of being able to predict a situation. In economic security, the concern is with economic gains. In emotional security, the concern is for structure and consistency in situations. The need for structure and consistency is reflected in the subordinate’s desire to anticipate the reaction of his boss. The subordinate wants his superior to be consistent. The need for security in the work setting reflects in the employee’s need for role clarity or the need to know about his tasks and procedures. Social needs involve the desire to maintain social relationships and involve acts instrumental to satisfaction of these. The need for nurturance, the need for succourance, seeking and granting approval, communicating (proper communication of work-related and personal issues by superiors to subordinates helps building up subordinates’ trust towards superiors), desire to subordinate individual interest to group interest, and so on are the reflections of the social needs. Ego needs include desires to dominate, to be powerful, to look respectful in the eyes of others (status), to control others, to keep others under surveillance, and so on. The need for power has been found to be negatively related to social need or the need for maintaining group relations26. The subordinate’s expectation that his superior allows him substantial freedom for action is a reflection of his need for power or the need to control the work situation by himself the work situation. There are studies showing that the needs for status and power do not contribute to task achievement. For instance, Menon27 found that high achievement-oriented supervisors in their task pursuits do not aspire for much freedom vis-à-vis satisfaction of their need for autonomy; they on the other hand, expect their superiors to provide them with support, involve them in organizational matters, share responsibility and power with them, and encourage their initiative. The need for self-actualization is referred to as the need for achievement28. Achievement need express itself in the desire to do a job well, using once knowledge and skills to be rewarded for accomplishment, to be recognized for good performance through feedback,29 to be able to control one’s situation for accomplishment of a task at hand through participation rather than through freedom per se, to be responsible for the job well done, to undertake work which is challenging and which involves moderate degree of risk or taking risk in relatively structured and predictive situations.30
Work Motivation
Labour efficiency is optimum when the labour costs per unit of production is lowest. Employees should put in their best effort as well as they should utilize their full time if labour cost per unit is to be kept lowest. The labour cost in the production cost per unit will increase if the employees work below the level of their optimum efficiency, or when they absent or fall sick. Although the employees do not have control over certain conditions such as falling sick which is due to factors outside their work life, they have control over their efficiency. Many of the studies such as reported by Roethlisberger and Dickson,31 and Whyte32 have shown that employees restrict their output voluntarily. Such voluntary restriction of output under wage incentive situations has also been found operating in the Indian business conditions.33 Apart from conscious restriction of efficiency, the employees withdraw their production effort through such mechanisms as absenting from work34 and involving in accidents35. Studies of job attitudes36 and motivation37 have brought out two main trends in the area of work motivation, viz., (i) Motivation versus Maintenance approach (also called Intrinsic Motivation versus Extrinsic Motivation), and (ii) Interaction of Multiple Need Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction.
Motivation versus Maintenance View
According to the motivation view, the individual put in their best and willing effort only when certain higher-order (task-related) needs as creative opportunity and challenge, and needs adjunct to these like responsibility and control over the task situation, are fulfilled. The permissible levels of output or work standard set in a work organization through techniques such as work study and collective bargaining are a step below the level which the employees can voluntarily make if they work assiduously and constructively. The sudden spurt in production when the employees respond to wage incentives illustrates the extra capacity of the employees. On the other hand, the employees meet the average levels according to maintenance view when the organizational conditions related to lower-order needs such as high wages, more fringe benefits, attractive and comfortable working conditions are met with. Failure to provide conditions related to lower-order needs makes the employees inefficient at work, through voluntary absenteeism, sickness and accidents, conflicts and rivalry, strikes and so on. Maintenance factors should be present before the motivational factors can operate. The need for the co-existence of conditions satisfying lower-order needs and those satisfying higher-order needs is shown in Menon’s study.38 He found that the high achievement-oriented supervisors are less efficient and lack satisfaction due to lack of chance for using their skill, for having learning experience, when their superiors do not lend support and do not encourage their initiative by means of their leadership style.
Interaction Of Multiple Need Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
According to this approach, employees’ drive to work is determined by the net outcome of satisfactions and dissatisfactions of multiple needs at different hierarchical levels. The employees strive towards the achievement of organizational goals if (i) the needs satisfied predominate over those dissatisfied, and (ii) if the satisfaction follows the hierarchical order in ascending fashion.
The second condition means that it is not appropriate to bring into play the needs at the higher levels before sufficient opportunity is given for the satisfaction of need systems at the lower levels. An example of this condition may be cited. The individual employees should not be put in competition such as in a piece rate wage incentive system when the group is heterogeneous in ability and when there is strong unionism; otherwise it will lead to interpersonal conflict and rivalry leading to restriction of production.
Organizational Climate Factors and Opportunities for Need Satisfaction and Need Dissatisfaction
Organizational climate characteristics provide opportunity for the satisfaction of certain needs, while they restrict the chance for the satisfaction of others. At the present stage of knowledge, the exact relationship is not known. However, there are studies which provide direct or indirect support to the relationships discussed here relating to one or more factors. A pattern of relationships has been conceived and presented in Exhibit 1. Although the proposed relationships call for statistical testing, their discussion should be helpful in understanding human behaviour. Exhibit 1 brings out the following findings. High structuring provides opportunity for the satisfaction security need and curtails the satisfaction of the needs for status and power, and the need for achievement. Low structuring (reflecting role ambiguity) provides opportunity for the dissatisfaction of the need for security, social need, the need for status and power, and the need for achievement. Moderate structuring provides opportunity for the satisfaction of the need for security and the need for social relationships. Compromising approach provides opportunity for the satisfaction of the need for status and power whereas the unilateral approach deprives the need for status and power.
Exhibit 1. Relationship between climate factors and satisfaction-dissatisfaction of employee need systems
Climate factors Physi-ological Safety & Security Social Status & Power Achie-vement
1a High Structuring N S N D D
1b Low Structuring N D D D D
1c Moderate Structuring N S S N N
2a Compromising N N N S N
2b Unilateral N N N D N
3a Warmth and Support N S S N N
3b Lack of Warmth and Support N D D N N
4a Expert Persuasion N N N S S
4b Coercion N D D D N
5a Co-operation N S S N N
5b Competitiveness in Group Situation N D D S N
6a Problem Solving Approach to Authority N N N S S
6b Status Approach to Authority N D D S N
7a Employee-Task Fit N N N S S
7b Lack of Employee-Task Fit N D N N N
8a Performance Based Reward N N N S S
8b Expediency Based Reward N D D D N
9a Setting High Performance Goals N N N S S
9b Setting Low Performance Goals N S S N N
10a High Risk Taking N D N S N
10b Complacency N S N N N
10c Moderate Risk Taking N S N S S
11a Decentralization N D D S S
11b Centralization N D D D N
S stands for “the opportunity provided for the satisfaction of the need”
D stands for “the situation leading to dissatisfaction or deprivation of the need”.
N stands for “need satisfaction unaffected”.
Providing warmth and support allows the employees to satisfy their need for security and the need for social relationships. Lack of warmth and support deprives them of opportunity to satisfy their need for security and the need for social relationships. Expert persuasion provides room for the satisfaction of the need for status and power, and the need for achievement. The coercive approach restricts chance for the satisfaction of the need for security, the need for social relationships, and the need for status and power. Cooperation provides opportunity to satisfy the need for security and the need for social relationships. Competitiveness in a group situation, on the other hand, restricts the chance for the satisfaction of the need for security and the need for social relationships. It, however, provides opportunity for the satisfaction of the need for status and power. Problem-solving approach to authority offers chance for the satisfaction of the need for status and power, and the need for achievement. On the other hand, status approach to authority while offering chance for the satisfaction of the need for status and power, curtails the need for security, and the need for social relationships.
Employee-task fit creates situations helpful for the satisfaction of the need for status and power, and the need for achievement. Lack of employee-task fit thwarts the employees’ need for security. Performance-based reward creates conditions for the satisfaction of the need for status and power, and the need for achievement. Expediency-based reward creates conditions detrimental to the satisfaction of the need for security, the need for social relationships, and the need for status and power. Setting up high-performance goals creates conditions for the realization of the need for status and power, and the need for achievement. Setting up low performance goals contributes to the satisfaction of the need for security and the need for social relationships. Encouraging high risks thwarts the need for security, although it invokes the employee need for status and power. Encouraging complacency on the contrary, contributes only to the satisfaction of security needs. When the employee is encouraged to take moderate risk it contributes to the satisfaction of the need for security, the need for status and power, and the need for achievement. Decentralization opens up chances for the satisfaction of the need for status and power and the need for achievement, while centralization thwarts the needs for security, social relationships status and power, and achievement.
Organizational Typologies and Work Motivation
At least five kinds of organizations can be distinguished in terms of the technological practices as well as the eleven organizational climate factors discussed earlier. They are :
1. Technologically Backward and Punitive
2. Technologically Progressive and Punitive
3. Technologically Backward and Maintenance-oriented
4. Technologically Progressive and Maintenance-oriented
5. Developmental
Technologically backward and Punitive, and Technologically Progressive and Punitive
In technologically backward and punitive organizations, the top management hardly introduces technological improvements and innovations. They are insensitive to the requirements of the changing market conditions. They tolerate profitability at a level lower than the maximum possible under efficient conditions. Such organizations are low on structure, unilateral, low on providing warmth and support, and enforce compliance. They encourage competition in the group through individual wage incentives, favouritism, etc. The members in such organizations, view authority as a source of status. The organization never makes conscious attempts to fit the employees to the jobs through proper selection procedure. The members do not perceive any relation between their work and the credit they get. The organization rewards its employees as a matter of expediency. If it finds that it can capitalize on certain abilities of an individual to serve its short-term goals, it puts him ahead of other employees who are generally assets to the organization. In other words, the Personnel Policy decisions are determined by the situational contingencies. The organization might set too high production goals to the individuals without creating the pre-conditions. It might encourage its employees to take high risks and once in a way reward such behaviour too. The authority and power for making all the decisions and even for administrative action is invested in the hands of the top few.
Technologically progressive and punitive organizations may create all the above conditions of organizational climate, except that it constantly watches for opportunities of technological improvements. It adopts a kind of Taylorian philosophy in the management of business.
Technologically Backward and Maintenance-Oriented versus Technologically Progressive and Maintenance-Oriented
In “technologically backward and maintenance-oriented” organizations, top managements are not competitive in running business. Technological changes are hardly introduced as a way to increase productivity of the plant. Rigidity in production planning is usually present, but not product innovation. Corresponding to the above technological practices, such organizations may be low on structuring, unilateral, enforce compliance, encourage competition, and relatively high on status approach to authority. It may hardly place the employees according to merit and establish link between effort and reward. Goals within easy reach of the individual are set. No particular incentive is provided for taking risk. Only persons at the top are involved in decision-making. The superiors are encouraged to provide warmth and support to their subordinates. The members are given economic security.
In the case of “technologically progressive and maintenance-oriented” organizations, the top management tries to innovate plants technologically as a way to productivity, while at the same time maintains a happy and contented work force by providing a welfare-oriented climate. It introduces the organizational climate conditions of maintenance discussed in the preceding paragraph. Top managements in such organizations believe in achieving production through mechanization. They also perceive that the employees are inevitable aids to production at a particular stage of technological development and so the need to keep them happy.
Developmental Organizations
Developmental organizations are aware of the potentialities of technology and their obligation for creating employment. Their decisions reflect not only economic considerations but also their socio-economic concerns. Such organizations develop managers who are not only masters of technology but those who have ability to make economic decisions in a particular socio-cultural context. They adapt technological innovations to the management of human organizations. Such organizations are technologically more innovative. Parallel to the technical system, they create the following conditions of organizational climate conducive for optimizing employee work motivation. The top management structures the tasks moderately and develops clarity of rules. It is compromising and flexible, and weighs the merit of the situation in making decisions. The employees are mutually helpful and supportive. They attempt to influence others by making them see the merits of the case rather than by coercion.
Such organizations prefer to encourage co-operative behaviour rather than making employees individually competitive. They do not make employees individually competitive especially if the situation is such that the social equity is thwarted. They adopt the problem-solving approach more often. Attempts are made to match the employees and their job requirements and reward them according to their efforts. They may use scientific selection procedures and techniques such as Job Analysis, Job Evaluation, Objective Performance Appraisal, and so on. They set high performance goals and encourage the employees to take good risks. The employees at all levels of the hierarchy share authority, power, and responsibility matched with their respective roles. Employees develop orientation towards the overall goals of the organization and towards coordination of functions.
Indian Industrial and Business Organizations
In the previous section, it was pointed out that the industrial organizations can be classified under one of the five types. In this section, let us attempt classification of Indian industrial organizations. Indian industrial organizations are too large and heterogeneous a universe that makes generalization difficult. However, as a first step in the direction, Indian industrial organizations may be classified into four types, viz., (i) small, privately-owned Indian family concerns, (ii) large companies having private Indian ownership, (iii) companies owned by state (the so-called public sector), and (iv) Indian Private enterprises having foreign collaboration
Small Privately-Owned Indian Companies
These companies may be said to reflect the features of “technologically backward and punitive” type of organizations. Certain conditions of organizational culture and climate as revealed in studies of these organizations may be discussed.
Organizational Climate
Most of these organizations have no organizational charts indicating the roles and the role relationships. They hardly induct the employees. The employees hardly know their duties, authority, accountability, and responsibility at the time of joining the organization. Their superiors and colleagues usually serve as sources of such information. Ambiguity in responsibility leads to conflict in organizational communication. For instance, it has been found that the bypassing of the lines of command is common. The chief executive will entrust the responsibility to the General Manager for the duties of Departmental Heads and at the same time allow the Departmental Heads to bypass the General Manager and report to him undermining the authority of the General Manager. There is hardly any job structuring. This creates a situation in which the job designations rarely reflect the duties, salary and authority (financial and personnel discretionary powers). Such ambiguity leads to lack of coordination. Lack of coordination is reflected in a situation in which one subordinate reports to two or more superiors in the line of command. Lack of coordination of roles also leads to interpersonal conflict and employee strains. There are hardly attempts to select and place the employees according to their merit. The Top Executive who is invariably an owner-manager is too possessive of his organization. He has no trust in his subordinates. This develops into a situation in which the people at different levels lack mutual trust. The Top Executive reserves to himself the authority in decision-making. He develops a trusted group of people in vital management functions. These people are related to the chief executive through family ties, social origin, etc. Trustworthiness and loyalty are emphasized as qualities required rather than merit. Top management selects persons for new jobs based on such ascriptive criteria as belonging to the community or caste to which the chief executive belongs. The organization is hardly interested in training and developing employees. It does not institute any systematic personnel appraisal programmes. Thus, a condition is created in which the employees do not perceive clearly the relationship between their efforts and the financial rewards administered by the organization. In controlling the employees, the organization uses coercive approach. The employees are criticized or punished for their faults. Competitive rather than cooperative approach is employed. The organization does not train the employees, with the result that wide variations in abilities among the employees exist. Yet it uses individual wage incentive. Punitive methods are used in dealing with the disciplinary problems emerging from the individual incentive situation. The organization does not set high goals of performance and output and is satisfied with the levels of output which are often below the optimum. The organization adopts a unilateral approach in the sense that it does not admit of any confrontations, with the result that it does not recognize and deal with unions.
Large Companies Having Private Indian Ownership
These companies are offshoots of the small privately-owned organizations. They thus show many of the climatic and cultural conditions witnessed in small organizations. They can be referred to as “Technologically Progressive and Maintenance-Oriented”. They are technologically more progressive than small organizations. They are low on structure in the sense that roles and role relationships lack clarity and line of command is violated by bypassing the positions. Rewards are not tied up with efforts and no scientific appraisal is followed. The employees are mot encouraged to take good risks. At times they are encouraged to take risks without providing the necessary support. Employee skills and abilities are not utilized properly. However, these large organizations are more favourably predisposed to hiring trained professionals. They employ specialists such as industrial engineers, marketing economists, personnel researchers and so on, although all of them are only in the advisory capacity. The authority for making decisions on policy matters and to a large extent on administrative matters rests with the top few individuals. There is one-way communication downward. Submission to and dependence upon authority is encouraged at all levels.
These large organizations differ from the small organizations in terms of (i) welfare orientation, and (ii) relative flexibility. They provide better wages, fringe benefits, social security measures and more security of jobs compared to small organizations. These organizations in fact provide much opportunity outside the work for the expression of certain higher-order needs of the employees such as the need for creative expression, need for responsibility, need for power, etc. The opportunities for the satisfaction of these needs within the plants are not encouraged.
These large organizations are more compromising in the sense that they permit opposing forces to co-exist. They do not view union growth and movement as a necessary evil. They deal with the problems of employment through unions, perhaps without bothering much about the canons of the bargaining process. They however attempt to live in peace with the unions.
The Indian Private companies having foreign collaboration retail most of the characteristic described above. Plum salaries and excellent employee well fare facilities are provided which are often much above those provided by large Indian companies are provided. More mechanization and computerization are introduced. Though some attempts are maid to introduce progressive and best HRM practices, not much success is achieved. The traditional Indian socio-cultural ethos seem to have strong hold with very little penetration of Global and universalistic work culture and technological practices.
State-Owned Companies (Public Enterprises)
Public Enterprises can be referred to as “Technologically Progressive and Maintenance-Oriented” organizations. The organizational culture and behaviour are comparable to those of large private-owned organizations in many respects. The roles are too structured. There is clarity in duties, reporting relationships, and authority and responsibility in the vertical structure of the organization (because of the emphasis on rules and procedures). This high structure provides emotional security to the employees. Due to rigidity in the structure, there is no horizontal coordination. Each channel in the hierarchical structure is relatively independent of other. As such, the employees in each function do not see their contribution to an overall goal. Rigidity in structure also restricts individual freedom. Adherence to procedures is emphasized as an end in itself. Employees are not selected to meet the requirements of the jobs. Often those making selections hardly know what a particular job requires in terms of human skills.39 This has its negative effects on employee appraisal. Skills and progress are not evaluated objectively. The rewards are not administered according to performance. Rewards such as promotions are given to employees based on criteria such as seniority, conformity to rules, conduct, etc. In all such reward procedures, the link between employee effort and reward is missing. The employees are not encouraged to take risks. Lack of employee freedom, absence of functional coordination, and the reward structure induce employee complacency. Correspondingly, the organization does not set up high performance goals. Public sector organizations are progressive technologically. They make heavy investments and use employee specialists. They are more progressive than other types of Indian industries in using specialists. They institute research and development programmes. They, however, do not involve these specialists in the mainstream of organizational activities. In employee control, the approach used differs from that prevalent in privately-owned organizations. In public enterprises, the superiors hardly use coercive approach. The approach used is one of status approach. The hierarchical levels reflect different levels of status. The subordinates submit to the superiors by virtue of their positional status. Thus, conformity is inbuilt in the structure, and the conformity pattern is predictable. The organization provides economic security and provides welfare and social insurance benefits. As the scope for interpersonal interaction is limited under Rule-orientation, the employees hardly derive any social satisfaction in their formal role relationships. However, as the organization does not restrict the cohesiveness of the group through Personnel And Technological Practices, an informal organization of employees develops for social satisfaction. Lack of ownership motivation at almost all the levels and lack of involvement in organizational decision-making encourage the development of groups and associations including members at higher levels.
Summary
Brief reviews given about Indian Business and Industry clearly show to change all of them into a Developmental type of Organization, a typology developed by the author. This typology can be used for bringing about the desired changes in the Indian Organizations for all round benefits.
References
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2.H.Baumgartel, “The Penetration of Modern Management Technology and Organizational Practices in Indian Business Organizations”, Indian Administrative and Management Review, 1971, 3,2.
3. Ibid
4. H.Baumgartel, op. cit.; and K.Chowdhry and A.K.Pal, “Production Planning and Organizational Morale : A Case from India”, Human Organizations, 1957, 15, 4, 11-16.
5.Baumgartel, op. cit.
6.K.S.Basu, “Management Gap in Indian Industry”, Commerce, Annual Number, 1968, 117, 40-42.
7. See, for example, G.H.Litwin and R.A.Stringer, Motivation and Organizational Climate, Harvard University, Division of Research, Graduate School of Business Administration, 1968.
8. I.Dayal, “Management”, Seminar, Annual 149, January 1972, 64-69.
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10. A.Sreekumar Menon, “Performance Effects”, New Delhi, Shri Ram Centre for Industrial Relations and Human Resources, 1971, unpublished manuscript.
11. S.K.Roy, Corporate Image in India, new Delhi, Shri Ram Centre for Industrial Relations and Human Resources, 1974.
12. J.Singh, “Management Practices in India Today : A Critique”, Indian Management, 1970, 9, 9, 3-9.
13. W.F.White, Money and Motivation : An Analysis of Incentives in Industry, New York, Harper, 1955; V.H.Vroom, Work and Motivation, New York, John Wiley, 1964; and A.W.Kornhauser, Mental health of the Industrial Worker : A Detroit Study, New York, John Wiley, 1965.
14. A.Sreekumar Menon, 1971, op. cit.
15. Ibid.
16. R.Likert, Human Organization : Its Management and Value, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1967.
17. I.Dayal, “Management”, op. cit.
18. J.Singh, op. cit.
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21. P.Chattopadhay, “Managerial Revolution in India”, Indian Manager, July 1969, 8
22. V.K.Pathak, “Wage Incentive, Productive Efforts and Perception Change”, Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 1969, 4, 4.
23. R.Likert, op.cit.
24. A.Sreekumar Menon, “Effectiveness of Wage Incentives: Analysis of Behavioural Processes”, in G.K.Suri (ed.), Wage Incentives: Theory and Practice, New Delhi, Shri Ram Centre for Industrial Relations and human Resources, 1973.
25. A.H.Maslow, Motivation and Personality, New York, Harper and Row, 1954.
26. G.h.Litwin and r.a. Striner, op.cit.
27. A.Sreekumar Menon, 1971, op. cit.
28. F.Herberg, B,Mausner and B.B.Snyderman, The Motivation to work, New York, John Wiley, Second Edn. 1966; D.C. Mc-Clelland and S.K.Winter, Motivating Economic Achievement, New York, Collier-MacMillan, 1971; and G.H.Litwin and R.A.Stringer, op.cit.
29. E.E.Lawler, Pay and Organizational Effectiveness. New York, McGRaw-Hill, 1971.
30. J.W.Atkinson, “Motivational Determinants of Risk-Taking Behavior”, in J.W.Atkinson and N.T.Feather (eds.), A Theory of Achievement Motivation, New York, John Wiley, 1966.
31. F.J.Roethlisberger and W.J.Dickson, Management and the Worker, Masschusetts, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1964.
32. W.F.Whyte, op. cit.
33. G.K.Suri, “Continuing Effectiveness of an Incentive Application; A Quantitative Evaluation”, New Delhi, Shri Ram Centre for Industrial Relations and Human Resources, 1972, mimeo.
34. A.Sreekumar Menon and H.Hanumanthiah, “Productive Drive and Absenteeism”, Business Herald, April, 1969, 4, 10-12.
35. A.Sreekumar Menon, “Interpersonal Relations and Industrial Safety”, Kerala Productivity Journal, October-December, 1969, 4, 4.
36. F.Herzberg et al., op. cit.
37. L.W.Porter and E.E.Lawler, op. cit.; and v.h.vroom, op. cit.
38. A Sreekumar Menon, 1971, op. cit.
39. K.Chowdhry, Change-in Organizations, Bombay, Lalvani Publishing House, 1970.
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